Research byte: More on the critical importance of attentional control (AC)--this time in sports performance

The ever growing body of research re the importance of the construct of attentional control (AC) in all kinds of human performance is, IMHO, one of the most important findings in cognitive psychology during the past few years.  In my opinion, improving AC may be one of the key's to effective brain training/fitness programs.  Also, differences in the AC of individuals has important implications for understanding differences in cognitive functioning.

Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition

Available online 10 June 2016

In Press, Corrected Proof — Note to users

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Working Memory, Attentional Control, and Expertise in Sports: A Review of Current Literature and Directions for Future Research

• Philip Furley^a, ,
• Greg Wood^b

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doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.05.001

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The aim of the present review was to investigate the theoretical framework of working memory as it relates to the control of attention in sport and thereby apply cognitive psychological theory to sports, but also use the sports domain to advance cognitive theory. We first introduce dual-process theories as an overarching framework for attention-related research in sports. Then a central mechanism is highlighted how working memory is involved in the control of attention in sports by reviewing research demonstrating that the activated contents in working memory control the focus of attention. The second part of the paper reviews literature showing that working memory capacity is an important individual difference variable that is predictive of controlling attention in a goal-directed manner and avoiding distraction and interference in sports. Finally, we address the question whether differences in working memory capacity contribute to sport expertise.

Keywords

• Dual-process;
• Working memory;
• Attention;
• Sport;
• Individual differences

Research byte: Multi-domain training may improve attentional control (AC) in older adults

Multi-domain training enhances attentional control.

Binder, Julia C.; Martin, Mike; Zöllig, Jacqueline; Röcke, Christina; Mérillat, Susan; Eschen, Anne; Jäncke, Lutz; Shing, Yee Lee

Psychology and Aging, Vol 31(4), Jun 2016, 390-408. http://dx.doi.org.ezp1.lib.umn.edu/10.1037/pag0000081

Abstract

Multi-domain training potentially increases the likelihood of overlap in processing components with transfer tasks and everyday life, and hence is a promising training approach for older adults. To empirically test this, 84 healthy older adults aged 64 to 75 years were randomly assigned to one of three single-domain training conditions (inhibition, visuomotor function, spatial navigation) or to the simultaneous training of all three cognitive functions (multi-domain training condition). All participants trained on an iPad at home for 50 training sessions. Before and after the training, and at a 6-month follow-up measurement, cognitive functioning and training transfer were assessed with a neuropsychological test battery including tests targeting the trained functions (near transfer) and transfer to executive functions (far transfer: attentional control, working memory, speed). Participants in all four training groups showed a linear increase in training performance over the 50 training sessions. Using a latent difference score model, the multi-domain training group, compared with the single-domain training groups, showed more improvement on the far transfer attentional control composite. Individuals with initially lower baseline performance showed higher training-related improvements, indicating that training compensated for lower initial cognitive performance. At the 6-month follow-up, performance on the cognitive test battery remained stable. This is one of the first studies to investigate systematically multi-domain training including comparable single-domain training conditions. Our findings suggest that multi-domain training enhances attentional control involved in handling several different tasks at the same time, an aspect in everyday life that is particularly challenging for older people. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

Mind wandering, the default network and controlled attention: An OBG video post

(This is an oldie-but-goodie blog post - OBG)

A few interesting video gems for your viewing.

First, forget multitasking and try mono-tasking.  Focus on just one thing...it may be beneficial.

Next, I have frequently blogged about the default mode or default brain network (Brain Clock posts; IM-HOME post).  The default mode (which is estimated to be active approximately 40% of our waking day) has been implicated in how our mind, when idling or resting, is very active--it does not rest while resting.  Difficulty quieting the default network has also been implicated in a variety of clinical disorders such as ADHD, Alzheimers, schizophrenia, and autism. This literature is now frequently referred to as mind wandering research (see Brain Clock mind wandering posts).  The following is a nice brief overview of the default brain network.

I have also suggested that some brain fitness technologies (Interactive Metronome in particular;  conflict of interest disclosure--I serve as a paid external consultant to IM regarding research) are achieving success by either directly or indirectly training controlled, focused attention, which requires shutting down and inhibiting the mind wandering predisposition of the default mode network.  I have posted both a set of PPT slides and the video of my recent IM keynote presentation at the Brain Clock blog where I presented the relevant research and hypotheses in detail.

Finally, a more lengthy, thought provoking video is presented last.  This video makes it clear that the brain is best conceptualized as an evolving interconnected network.

Enjoy.

Positive Cogmed working memory training study--math and reading

Front Psychol. 2015; 6: 1711.

Published online 2015 Nov 10. doi:  10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01711

PMCID: PMC4639603

Working Memory Training is Associated with Long Term Attainments in Math and Reading

Stina Söderqvist^* and Sissela Bergman Nutley

Author information ► Article notes ► Copyright and License information ►

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Abstract

Training working memory (WM) using computerized programs has been shown to improve functions directly linked to WM such as following instructions and attention. These functions influence academic performance, which leads to the question of whether WM training can transfer to improved academic performance. We followed the academic performance of two age-matched groups during 2 years. As part of the curriculum in grade 4 (age 9–10), all students in one classroom (n = 20) completed Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT) whereas children in the other classroom (n = 22) received education as usual. Performance on nationally standardized tests in math and reading was used as outcome measures at baseline and two years later. At baseline both classes were normal/high performing according to national standards. At grade 6, reading had improved to a significantly greater extent for the training group compared to the control group (medium effect size, Cohen’s d = 0.66, p = 0.045). For math performance the same pattern was observed with a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.58) reaching statistical trend levels (p = 0.091). Moreover, the academic attainments were found to correlate with the degree of improvements during training (p < 0.053). This is the first study of long-term (>1 year) effects of WM training on academic performance. We found performance on both reading and math to be positively impacted after completion of CWMT. Since there were no baseline differences between the groups, the results may reflect an influence on learning capacity, with improved WM leading to a boost in students’ capacity to learn. This study is also the first to investigate the effects of CWMT on academic performance in typical or high achieving students. The results suggest that WM training can help optimize the academic potential of high performers.

Keywords: working memory training, academic attainment, cognitive training, cogmed, educational psychology

Brain training: Building more ecological valid training to induce transfer

Interesting thoughts re: increasing the complexity, diversity and novelty of brain training programs to obtain more transfer beyond the task. I particularly think that brain training the incorporates cognitive and motor performance is an excellent idea.

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Network or state training? Interesting hypothesis on differences in working memory v meditation brain training

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"I think...therefore IM" Interactive Metronome Keynote a year ago....Slide show

I think...therefore IM from Kevin McGrew

White matter matters: Brain synchronization via the brain's communication subway system

White matter, in contrast to the grey squiggly mass (the cerebrum) that most people associate with the human brain, was for many years the research step-child to the cerebrum. That is no more. White matter, which has been called the brain's subway, super information system, or interstate highway communication system, now has a glass slipper. Research during the past decade has implicated white matter as performing the critical task of connecting and synchronizing different brain regions or networks so they can perform a wide variety of complex human cognitive or motor behaviors. The white matter system is considered the communication backbone system for the flow of information in the brain. Of particular interest (to me) is the parietal-frontal network, which is implicated as central to abstract human intelligence, fluid intelligence (Gf), working memory and attentional control (see prior posts re: the P-FIT model).

In a MindHub white paper I hypothesized that increasing white matter tract integrity may be a key mechanism behind the efficacy of the Interactive Metronome neuro-timing intervention (see figure below). I have gone as far as suggesting that the efficacy of many brain training/fitness programs may stem from a common domain-general effect--improving communication between and within various brain network(s) via more efficient white matter tract speed and communication. [Click on image to enlarge]

White matter integrity or dysfunction as been implicated in a wide variety of cognitive disorders or abilities, including cognitive control, math and intellectual giftedness, fluid intelligence or reasoning, processing speed, reading, decrease in cognitive functioning, meditation, working memory, vascular cognitive impairment, ADHD, autism, and cognitve and language maturation in infants. A sampling of recent white matter research article abstracts I have accumulated can be found by clicking here.
White matter matters!

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Does working memory training work? For whom..and why or why not?

"Under which circumstances, and for which person, can WM be improved and why?"


The above title is a quote from a new article by van Basian and Oberauer (2013) that provides a balanced treatment of issues that should be examined when evaluating the wave of working memory training articles that are being published at a steady stream. They reviewed over 40 different working memory intervention studies. I particularly like the visual model of possible factors/mechanisms that should be considered.
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"I think...therefore IM" (Interactive Metronome)--Dr. Kevin McGrew IM 2012 Keynote Conference presentation

Keynote presentation by Dr. Kevin McGrew at the 2012 Interactive Metronome professional conference in San Antonio, Texas. Dr. McGrew presents his three-levels of interpretation research and theory-based hypothesis re: the reason IM improves cognitive performance across different domains. The primary message focuses on improving focus (controlled attention), working memory and executive functions. Recent brain network research implicates improve brain network communication via white matter tracts, particularly the Parietal-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT) of intelligence. 

Taping was from a distance so the audio, at times, is weak. Listening with ear buds suggested.  Also, a non-audio version of the complete set of PPT slides is available for more reflective viewing via my SlideShare account.

[Heads up - the "cat" video clip near the beginning is not a mistake.  Don't think that YouTube has done something weird--I comment on the interpretation of the cat video after it is over]

Below is a snippet of a part of the larger video that explains the key concepts and PPT-based animations that are used in the Keynote presentation.

Finally, if you are unfamiliar with the  IM technology, you might want to watch the following brief introductory video before viewing the Keynote video.  The video is a bit dated with regard to current understanding of how IM may work, as explained in the Keynote video above.  However, it is a good video for understanding the task demands of IM

As noted in my conflict of interest disclosure statement, I am an external paid consultant to IM (Director of Research and Science)

"Ned the Neuron" and "Your Fantastic Elastic Brain": Let's educate our children about their brains and brain fitness

Just in time for holiday shopping—some educational materials to help children learn more about their brains and brain fitness.

I believe that children should be taught, at an appropriate level with engaging media, to understand important concepts about their brains and learning. If you are a parent, educator, or therapist who wants to teach children information that will allow them to better understand themselves and empower their thinking (how they can control and modify their minds and behavior; a Growth Mindset), it is nice to know that a variety of groups have recently developed engaging books, videos and apps regarding the human brain and brain training or plasticity.  I recently discovered two sources of material that are worth attention.

The Adventures of Ned the Neuron is a free iPad app.  This well constructed app is 34 full color pages of material.  

The app includes:

• Read to Me function with voice over and soundtrack
• Interactive educational diagrams
• Three mini-games
• Over 30 neuroscience concepts introduced

The original version crashed on original generation one iPads, but that has now been fixed and it works without a hitch on my iPad (generation one).  A brief introductory video is available for viewing.  Additional information regarding this free app can be found at the Kizoom website.  The app can be found at the iTunes App Store link at the Kizoom website.  Below are a few select screen shots (the last being a collage of all screens). 

 [Click on images to enlarge]

Your Fantastic Elastic Brain:  Stretch It, Shape It is a multimedia resource by the DEAK Group.  It includes an app, a book, posters, and other education related resources.  These materials are not free, but the costs are minimal and, in my opinion, are good investments in the education of children.  My only complaint is that the app frequently crashed when I tried to navigate from one page to a different section of the program.  I am using a generation one iPad, so I don’t know the extent to which this generalizes to later iPads.  Visit the link above to learn more and to find a link to the iTunes App Store.

The book is also available at Amazon.com.  A brief introductory video is available for viewing at the web site or on YouTube. 

A few select screen shots from the app are below.

Research byte: Video games, life-long learning and brain plasticity

Very thought provoking review in the prestigious Annual Review of Neuroscience that provides insights into the possible domain-general learning that may occur during some video games that may generalize to other learning domains and brain plasticity.

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www.themindhub.com

How Aerobic Excercise Affects Your Brain

This is a guest blog post by the folks over at What Are Nootropics?  As per usual, guest posts are posted "as is" and do not necessarily reflect the endorsement by Kevin McGrew or this blog.

Worldwide, people engage in aerobic exercise on a daily basis. The majority of these people are trying to lose weight and strengthen their hearts. An improved basal metabolic rate and cardiovascular fitness are the most commonly known benefits associated with aerobic exercise. But how many people have thought about the ways aerobic exercise affects their brain? Probably not many. 

Aerobic exercise affects your brain?

Research in recent years has shown that aerobic exercise effects our brain in three distinct ways. If you don't have the motivation to engage in regular aerobic exercise, hopefully you will have found it by the time you are finished reading this post.

Aerobic exercise increases levels of the protein brain-derived nootropic factor (BDNF).  ¹ The BDNF protein plays an important role in our brain's ability to create new neurons, a process called neurogenesis. BDNF also improves the survivability of new neurons after they have been created. The process of neurogenesis takes place in the hippocampus, the area of the brain responsible for memory formation. Interestingly, one study showed that aerobic exercise increased hippocampal volume by 2% and effectively reversed age related loss in volume by 2 years. ² If you want your brain to be at its sharpest, you need to be exercising on a regular basis. This is especially important as you age.

Higher levels of BDNF isn't the only way aerobic exercise improves cognitive function. As stated earlier, it is common knowledge that aerobic exercise strengthens your heart, but many people are aware of the link that exists between heart health and brain health? You heart is responsible for pumping blood to your brain. Blood contains oxygen and glucose, which your brain uses as fuel to carry out all of its functions. Think of your heart as the battery which powers your brain. By strengthening that battery, you can improve cognitive function across the board. ³

Aerobic exercise does more than improve cognitive abilities.

Aerobic exercise effects the levels of one very important neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are what your brain cells use to communicate with each other. Different neurotransmitters have different functions. There is a neurotransmitter for learning, memory, attention, energy, appetite, mood, etc. Aerobic exercise increases release of the neurotransmitter serotonin. 

Serotonin's most prevalent function is its ability to regulate mood. Many people who are chronically depressed have abnormally low levels of serotonin. Consequently, most anti-depressants work by inhibiting the breakdown of serotonin. Simply put, the more serotonin in your brain, the better you feel. Aerobic exercise is a completely natural way to increases serotonin levels in the brain. ⁴ This is why aerobic exercise is such an effective stress reliever.

In fact, some marathon runners actually become addicted to the activity. The engage in such strenuous amounts of aerobic exercise, they experience what is called a "runner's high." ⁵ Many have the desire to run longer and longer distances simply to achieve a greater high.  Will you experience a "runner high"? Not likely, but you will elevate your serotonin levels and find you are in a better mood on a day-to-day basis.

Are there other ways to achieve these effects?

The cheapest and safest way to improve cognitive abilities and boost mood is to exercise for one hour, at least three days a week. However, there are other ways. Using nootropics such as lion's mane mushroom can also increase neurogenesis. Piracetam, on the other hand, improves cerebral blood flow. Personally, I would not even think about nootropics until you are doing everything else you can to improve cognitive function, and aerobic exercise is the single best place to start!

Resources

1. Running is the neurogenic and neurotrophic stimulus in environmental enrichment http://learnmem.cshlp.org/content/18/9/605.abstract

2. Exercise training increases size and hippocampus and improves memory: http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/01/25/1015950108.abstract

3. Cardiovascular fitness is associated with cognition in young adulthood: http://www.pnas.org/content/106/49/20906.full.pdf

4. Abstract, How to increase serotonin in the human brain without drugs: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2077351/

5. ABC News, Exercise Addicts Can Blame Their Brains: http://abcnews.go.com/Health/MensHealthNews/story?id=8430744

Brain training: Effective fact or a just a fad?

The brain fitness/training field is hot as evidenced by the following three different review articles I discovered in my weekly literature search. I have not yet read them but wanted to pass these along as FYI ASAP.

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Research byte: Is working memory training effective? Research synthesis

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Training the brain research overview article--does it work? What works?

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Technorati Tags: psychology,neuropsychology,neuroscience,brain,brain fitness

The brain as a set of networks: Fine tunning your networks

Man has always known that the brain is the center of human behavior.  Early attempts at understanding which locations in the brain controlled different functions were non-scientific and included such practices as phrenology.  This pseudoscience believed that by feeling the bumps of a persons head it was possible to draw conclusions about specific brain functions and traits of the person.

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Eventually brain science revealed that different regions of the brain where specialized for different specific cognitive processes (but it was not related to the phrenological brain bump maps).  This has been called the modular or functional specialization view of the brain, which is grounded in the conclusion that different brain areas acted more-or-less as independent mechanisms for completing specific cognitive functions.

One of the most exciting developments in contemporary neuroscience is the recognition that the human brain processes information via different brain circuits or loops which at a higher level can be studied as large scale brain networks. Although the modular view still provides important brain insights, the accumulating evidence suggests that it has serious limitations and might in fact be misleading (Bresslor and Menon, 2010).  One of the best summaries of this cutting edge research is that by Bresslor and Menon.

Large scale brain network research suggests that congitive functioning is the result of interactions or communication between different brain systems distributed throughout the brain. That is, when performing a particular task, just one isolated brain area is not working alone.  Instead, different areas of the brain, often far apart from each other within the geogrpahic space of the brain, are communicating through a fast-paced sychronized set of brain signals.  These networks can be considered preferred pathways for sending signals back and forth to perform a specific set of cognitive or motor behaviors. 

To understand preferred neural pathways, think of walking on a college campus where there are paved sidewalks connecting different buildings that house specialized knowledge and activities.  If you have spent anytime on a college campus, one typically finds foot-worn short cuts in the grass that are the preferred (and more efficient) means by which most people move between building A and B.  The combined set of frequently used paved and unpaved pathways are the most efficient or preferred pathways for moving efficiently between buildings.  The human brain has developed preferred communication pathays that link together different brain circuits or loops in order to quickly and efficiently complete specific tasks. 

According to Bresslor and Menon (2010), “a large-scale functional network can therefore be defined as a collection of interconnected brain areas that interact to perform circumscribed functions.”  More importantly, component brain areas in these large-scale brain networks perform different roles.  Some act as controllers or task switchers that coordinate, direct and synchronize the involvement of other brain networks.  Other brain networks handle the flow of sensory or motor information and engage in concious manipulation of the information in the form of “thinking.” 

As illustrated in the figure above, neuroscientists have identified a number of core brain network nodes or circuits.  The important new insight is that these various nodes or circuits are integrated together into a grander set of higher-level core functional brain networks.  Three important core networks are receiving considerable attention in explaining human beavhior. 

Major functional brain networks

The default mode (DMN) or default brain network (shown in blue) is what your brain does when not engaged in specific tasks.  It is the busy or active part of your brain when you are mentally passive.  According to Bresslor and Brennon the “DMN is seen to collectively comprise an integrated system for autobiographical, self-monitoring and social cognitive functions.”  It has also been characterized as responsible for REST (rapid episodic spontaneous thinking).  In other words, this is the spontaneous mind wandering and internal self-talk and thinking we engage in when not working on a specific task or, when completing a task that is so automatized (e.g., driving a car) that our mind starts to wander and generate spontaneous thoughts.  As I have discussed previously (at IM-HOME blog), the default network is responsible for the unquiet or noisy mind.  And, it is likely that people differ in amount of spontaneous mind wandering (which can be both positive creative thinking or distracting thoughts), with some having a very unquiet mind that is hard to turn off, while others can turn off the inner thought generation and self-talk and display tremendous self-focus or controlled attention to perform a cognitively or motorically demanding task.  A very interesting discussion of the serendipitous discovery and explanation of the default brain network is in the following soon to be published scientific article.

The salience network (shown in yellow) is a controllor or network switcher.  It monitors information from within (internal input) and from the external world arounding us, which is constantly bombarding us with information.  Think of the salience network as the air traffic controllor of the brain.  Its job is to scan all information bombarding us from the outside world and also that from within our own brains.  This controller decides which information is most urgent, task relevant, and which should receive priority in the que of sending brain signals to areas of the brain for processing.  This controlling network must suppress either the default or executive networks depending on the task at hand.  It must supress one, and activiate the other.  Needless to say, this decision making and distribution of information must require exquisite and efficienct neural timing as regulated by the brain clock(s).

Finally, the central-executive network (CEN; shown in red) “is engaged in higher-order cognitive and attentional control.”  In other words, when you must engage your concious brain to work on a problem, place information in your working memory as you think, focus your attention on a task or problem, etc., you are  “thinking” and must focus your controlled attention.  As I understand this research, the salience or controller network is a multi-switching mechanism that is constantly initiating dynamic switching between the REST (sponatenous and often creative unquie mind wandering) and thinking networks to best match the current demands you are facing.

According to Bresslor and Melon, not only is this large scale brain network helping us better understand normal cognitive and motor behavior, it is providing insights into clinical disorders of the brain.  Poor synchronization between the three major brain networks has been implicated in Alzheimer’s, schizophrenia, autism, the manic phase of biploar and Parkinson’s (Bresslor and Melon, 2010), disorders that have all been linked to a brain or neural timing (i.e, the brain clock or clocks).  I also believe that ADHD would be implicated.  If the synchronized milli-second based communicaiton between and within these large networks is compromised, and if the network traffic controller (the salience network) is disrupted in particular, efficient and normal cognition or motor behavior can be compromised.

I find this emerging research fascinating.  I believe it provides a viable working hypothesis to explain why different brain fitness or training neurotechnologies have shown promise in improving cognitive function in working memory, ADHD, and other clinical disorders.  It is my current hypothesis that various brain training technologies may focus on different psychological constructs (e.g., working memory; planning; focus or controlled attention), but their effectiveness may all be directly or indirectly facilitating the sychronization between the major brain networks.  More specifically, by strengthing the ability to invoke the salience or controller network, a person can learn to supress, inhibit or silence the REST-producing default brain network more efficiently, long enough to exert more controlled attention or focus when invoking the thinking central executive network.  Collectively these brain fitness techonologies may all improving the use of those abilities called executive function, or what I have called the personal brain manager.  Those technologies that focus on rhythm or brain timing are those I find most fascinating.  For example, the recent example of the use of melodic intonation therapy with Congresswoman Gabby Giffords (she suffered serious brain trauma due to a gun shot) demonstrates how rhythm-based brain timing therapies may help repair destroyed preferred and efficient neural pathways or, develop new pathways, much like the development of a new foot worn pathway in the grass on a college campus if a preferred pathway is disrupted by a new building, temporary work or rennovation, or some other destruction of a preferred and efficient network of movement path.

To understand the beauty of the synchronized brain, it is best to see the patterns of brain network connections in action.  Below is a video called the “Meditating Mind.”  I urge you to view the video for a number of reasons.  

A number of observations should be clear.  First, during the first part of the video the brain is seen as active even during a resting state.  This is visual evidence of the silent private dialouge (REST) of the default mode or network of the brain.  Next, the video mentions the rhythm of increased and decreased neural activation as the brain responds to no visual information or presentation of a video.  The changes in color and sound demonstrate the rich rhthymic sychronization of large and different parts of the brain, depending on whether the brain is engaged in a passive or active cognitive task.  The beauty of the rapidly changing and spreading communication should make it obvious that efficient rhythmic synchronization of timing of brain signals to and from different networks or ciruits is critical to efficient brain functioning.

Finally, the contrast between the same brain under normal conditions and when engaged in a form of meditation is striking.  Clearly when this person’s brain is mediating, the brain is responding with a change in rates and frequency of brain network activation and synchrony.  As I described in my personal IM-HOME based experience post, mastering Interactive Metronome (IM) therapy requires “becoming one with the tone”…which sounds similar to the language of those who engage in various forms of meditation.  Could it be that the rhythmic demans of IM, which require an individual to “lock on” to the auditory tone and stay in that synchronized, rhythmic and repetitive state for as long as possible, might be similar to the underlying mechanics of some forms of meditation, which also seek to suppress irrelevant and distracting thoughts and eventually “let the mind go"---posibbly to follow a specific train of thought with complete and distraction free focus. 

Yes…this is speculation.  I am trying to connect research-based and personal experience dots.  It is exciting.  My IM-HOME based induce personal focus experience  makes sense from the perspective of the function and interaction between the three major large scale brain networks.