Another study demonstrates positive impact of Interactive Metronome treatment on reading

I just learned that the following article is soon to be published (click here for journal info)

[Click on image to enlarge]

This is the second peer-reviewed article to demonstrate a significant positive impact of Interactive Metronome (IM) training on certain reading behaviors in a study with both experimental and control groups.  The other study was one I was involved with (Taub, McGrew, & Keith, 2007; the abstract is presented below).  You can access that complete 2007 manuscript at the Brain Clock blog.

In the new Ritter et al. study, IM was combined with reading and language interventions in school-age children that had language and reading impairments.  This will be called the IM+language/reading intervention experimental group (IM+).  Half of the subjects were randomly assigned to this experimental group (n=21).  The other subjects (n=28) were randomly assigned to the same language/reading intervention, but without IM.  So, this study is not a pure investigation of the isolated benefits of IM.  Instead, it should be viewed as a study that investigated whether IM training could be a good “add on” component to other interventions focused on language and reading.  The outcome domain assessed was various components of reading achievement.

Both groups demonstrated statistically significant gains in reading rate/fluency and comprehension.  However, the IM+ demonstrated statistically significant stronger gains than the language/reading intervention only (control) group.  This suggests that IM may be a useful adjunct intervention to be used with other more traditional academic related treatments directed at reading improvement.

Similar to the Taub et al. (2007) study, the IM+ students showed more improvement (over the control students) in reading fluency/rate.  This consistent finding across both studies has been hypothesized to be due to either (a)  improvements in speed of cognitive processing, which results in greater efficiency and automaticity in reading words, (b) greater controlled attention (focus) which improves working memory functioning, or (c) a combination of both.

The new study differed from the earlier study in that IM+ group displayed greater reading comprehension gains than the academic only intervention group.  Taub et al. (2007) found no improvement in reading comprehension.  Given that both groups received the same language and reading comprehension treatment, it is hypothesized that the addition of IM may be impacting some cognitive processes that facilitate reading comprehension.  I agree with Ritter et al. (2012) that a viable hypothesis is that by increasing focus (attentional control) the students working memory’s were more efficient.  Working memory is the minds limited capacity “mental workbench” (just think of trying to recall a new phone number you just looked up in the phone book).   Increased attentional control (focus) increases the ability to actively maintain information just read in working memory long enough for it to be associated with material retrieved from long-term memory—thus “hooking” newly read information into the person’s store of acquired knowledge.  Click here for a recent brief video (I think…therefore IM) where I explain the role of focus and working memory and how it may facilitate higher level cognitive processing, comprehension, etc.

Of course, the small total sample (n=49) suggests some degree of caution.  But when combined with the Taub et al. (2007) study with larger samples, this form of replication in a new sample provides more support for the academic benefits (especially ease and rate of reading words) of IM interventions in school-age children.  Independent replication is a cornerstone of scientific research.

The Brain Clock: Comming out of the neurotech closet

[Note.  This post was originally written to be distributed to a number of professional listservs.  I then decided against that idea, and instead, produce it here as a blog post.  I will be sending brief FYI (with links to this post) to a number of professional listservs.  So, it sounds like a listserv post...which it originally was...but it is now a blog post.]

Anyone who has followed my blogs knows that during the past 5 years, aside from my IQ's Corner blog, I have nurtured a sister blog addressing mental timing research (the Brain Clock blog..previously nicknamed the IQ Brain Clock). 

My interest in the brain clock, and other brain training/fitness technology, piqued as a result of my involvement (very skeptical at first) in a study directed by Gordon Taub in 2004.  Taub, myself, and one of the best stat/methodologists in school psychology (Dr. Tim Keith) published an article in Psychology in the Schools (Taub, McGrew & Keith, 2007) that reported that Interactive Metronome (IM) training resulted in significant increases in the fluency of basic reading skills when compared to control group subjects (randomly assigned treatment and control groups).  The results floored me...as I had become a huge skeptic of non-academic interventions for academics...as I had many scars from the early LD "process remediation" treatment days of Frostig, ITPA psycholinguistic training, Doman-Delacato motor pattern retraining, etc.).  I thus set out on a 5 year mission to explore the brain clock/mental timing research literature, which I have posted portions of at the Brain Clock blog.  I needed to now why such an elegant neurotechnology could have positive impacts on such diverse domains as ADHD, golf, tennis, reading, and stroke rehab.  It had to be working on some kind of cognitive domain-general mechanism.

I have become convinced that this apparently simple (it is not so simple if you give it a try...it places huge demands on attentional control and executive functions) neurotechnology may be (my working hypotheses) fine tuning the resolution of the underlying human brain clock (or system of clocks), and might be increasing the resolution of neural oscillations as per Jensen's neural efficiency hypothesis.  The brain clock literature has huge overlaps with the contemporary g and executive functions literature, and especially exciting research by Rammsayer et al regarding "temporal g" (which appears more highly correlated with psychometric g than Jensen's reaction time g).  These parallel sets of research all focus on similar neuro constructs and brain networks (the central executive network and the salience/attentional networks...as per recent research on large scale brain networks....the other being the default mode network; see Bressler and Menon, 2010; Large-scale brain networks in cognition: Emerging methods and principles, Trends in Cognitive Science, Vol 14, Issue 6, pp 277-290).

I won't go into greater detail.  I am going to provide the detail via a series of blog posts at the IM Home web site ---  via the blog feature.  My blog posts will be written for the lay audience, and will contain links back to my Brain Clock blog for the harder science.  My first post is now up and availale (click here)


CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURE - I am not an employee of IM but serve as a paid external consultant.  Also, any statements or positions I make do not reflect the views of the coauthors of the WJ III Battery, a battery of cognitive and achievement tests where I am a co-author.  This disclaimer also applies to Riverside Publishing, the publisher of the WJ III.


Thank you for reading

Kevin McGrew
Educational Psychologist
Director, Institute for Applied Psychometrics.

Improved brain clock improves student performance: Media coverage

Today's edition of the Daytona Beach News-Journal includes an interesting report on a private schools use of a synchronized metronome tapping (SMT) intervention (viz., Interactive Metronome) with elementary school-age children. The article speaks for itself, with the staff reporting positive improvement in behavior and academics for students using the IM method.

As you will notice, myself, and my friend/colleague (Dr. Gordon Taub) were interviewed for the article. We were interviewed as the reporter read our recent journal publication in Psychology in the Schools, an article that reported positive reading improvement after the IM intervention.

This is one of my handful of experiences in being interviewed by a reporter. After spending at least one hour on the phone with the reporter, and sharing all kinds of information, it is interesting to see what comments I (we) made the survived the final cut. I'm pleased that the information attributed to Dr. Taub and I was accurate.

Be sure to watch the video that accompanies the article...it will give you a good feel for the basics of the IM (SMT-based) intervention.

As I've reported before, my involvement in the IM study with Dr. Taub was the impetus for my recent interest in temporal processing, mental/interval time-keeping, and the concept of an internal brain clock. It is why I started the IQ Brain Clock blog.

[See conflict of interest disclosure statement re: my role as a Scientific Advisor to IM]

Just in case this on-line article is ever pulled from the net, I've made a pdf copy available for viewing.


Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, neuropsychology, neuroscience, neurotechnology, brain clock, Interactive Metronome, mental time keeping, temporal processing

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Efficacy of Interactive Metronome treatment study (Cosper, 2009): An example of a "non-example" of IM efficacy research

As a member of the Interactive Metronome Scientific Advisory Board I am often asked to review published research studies that have investigated the IM method.

Recently, a investigation of the effectiveness IM (which is a mental timing-based intervnetion) with children with attention deficit disorder and developmental coordination disorders was published in the International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. The citation and abstract for the article are reproduced below.

• Cosper, S., Lee, G., Peters, S & Bishop, E. (2009).  Interactive Metronome training in children with attention deficit and developmental coordination disorders, Internal Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 32 (4), 331-336.  (click here to view)

Abstract: The objective of this study was to examine the efficacy of Interactive Metronome (Interactive Metronome, Sunrise, Florida, USA) training in a group of children with mixed attentional and motor coordination disorders to further explore which subcomponents of attentional control and motor functioning the training influences. Twelve children who had been diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, in conjunction with either developmental coordination disorder (n=10) or pervasive developmental disorder (n=2), underwent 15 1-h sessions of Interactive Metronome training over a 15-week period. Each child was assessed before and after the treatment using measures of attention, coordination, and motor control to determine the efficacy of training on these cognitive and behavioral realms. As a group, the children made significant improvements in complex visual choice reaction time and visuomotor control after the training. There were, however, no significant changes in sustained attention or inhibitory control over inappropriate motor responses after treatment. These results suggest Interactive Metronome training may address deficits in visuomotor control and speed, but appears to have little effect on sustained attention or motor inhibition.

After reading thie manuscript, I decided to make this formal blog post in an effort to educate readers on a few critical issues related to intervention research. After a thorough read of the study, and despite the fact that it reported positive findings in the area of motor coordination improvement (but not in attention), it is my professional opinion that there are enough major methodological flaws which make the study an invalid study of the effectiveness of the IM treatment program.

Below are the major concerns I have about the study. I will only focus on my major concerns and will not highlight other minor concerns I noted during my review of manuscript.

Treatment integrity/fidelity/validity:  The most serious (fatal) flaw  is the lack of treatment integrity or validity. As described in the methods section, the treatment consisted of one hour sessions (per week) of IM treatment over a period of 15 weeks. To readers unfamiliar with the IM program, the standard treatment protocol is for three hourly sessions per week.  The use of only one hourly session per week (versus the recommended three hourly sessions per week) is a clear example of poor treatment integrity as defined below.

Treatment integrity (also known as treatment fidelity) refers to the degree to which intervention is implemented as intended. Interpretations of the obtained results require some assurance that treatment was carried our as it was designed or, in other words, that treatment was implemented with high levels of integrity. Compromised integrity has serious implications for inferences drawn about the relationship between treatment and outcome. Indeed, the obtained results are related not to the intended intervention (i.e., treatment as designed) but to the implemented intervention (i.e., treatment as delivered by treatment agents). [Click here for more information]

This violation of the IM treatment protocol would be analogous to the following:

• Being prescribed three weekly sessions of physical therapy for back pain but only doing one session a week.
• Being prescribed 300 mg/day of some form of medication to treat a condition, but only taking 100 mg/day.
• Having a reading disabled student who is recommended to receive three hourly sessions of reading-focused special education services a week only receive one hourly session per week.

The bottom line is that this this study should not be considered a valid study of the efficacy of the IM treatment program as it was not implemented as per the prescribed IM treatment protocol (poor treatment integrity/fidelity).  This major methodological flaw in itself disqualifies this study as a valid study of the IM treatment program.

Confounding of IM treatment with pharmacological treatments. The sample consisted of 12 subjects with various diagnoses, but whom all shared a diagnosis of ADHD.  As described by the authors, half of the subjects were taking some form of medication during the study. More importantly, "no medication changes occurred over the course of the study". This introduces a potential intervention confound. It is very possible that the medications received by half of the sample were already impacting the ability of these children to attend and concentrate at their maximal levels. As a result, no non-pharmacological intervention would have a chance to prove its effectiveness as these six subjects were already being "treated " via medication (and might already be near or at their optimal level of functioning). When it can be ethically designed, the efficacy of nondrug (or new drug) effectiveness is typically investigated by having subjects on a  current medication regime discontinue their medication for a rescribed period of time to establish a nondrug baseline performance level. Then the new treatment (or new drug) is introduced and performance measured to evaluate effectiveness. This was not done in the current study for half of the subjects.   It can be easily argued that  at least half of the subjects were already receiving treatment or intervention (medication) which confoundes the ability to detect effectiveness for any new treatment (e.g.,  IM). 

Statistical and design analysis: It is well known in the research methodology literature that the simple analysis of change scores (from a pre- post-test design) is a less than optimal research design. The most critical issue is the fact that the reliability of the change or difference score is a function of the reliability of the pre-and post test scores and the correlation between the two. The reliability of change scores is always much lower than the reliability of individual measures. In addition, possible differences in the subjects as they entered the study should be controlled for in the analysis via some form of statistical control (e.g., analysis of covariance, repeated measures designs, etc.). Simple pre-/post-test change score research designs suffer from serious methodological flaws.  This has been recognized for decades.  The results are of questionable value. Click here for additional background information.  Furthermore, the study does not include a control group or the random assignment of subjects to treatment and control groups.

Incomplete literature review:  In the introduction the authors state that "there are only two peer-reviewed studies comparing pretreatment and posttreatment effects that include a control group, and one of these found that the Interactive Metronome improved golf swings in healthy normal individuals."  The authors failed to mention one of the largest and best designed IM efficacy studies (random assigment of subjects to treatment and control groups;  analysis that controlled for initial pret-test scores) by Taub et al.  (2007).  Furthermore, the above quote conveys the implicit assumption that a study of the effectiveness of IM on golf swings is not relevant to the current research. This reflects a narrow understanding of the potential causal mechanisms of the IM program. As discussed in the Taub et al article, and in a recent review of the efficacy of various brain rhythm treatments, a review of theoretical and empirical research (from a diverse range of disciplines) suggests the hypothesis that the effectiveness of IM is due to its impact on a "domain-general" cognitive mechanism. If a treatment programs efficacy is believed to be based on the modification of a domain general cognitive/brain-based mechanism, one would expect it to have generalized treatment effects across a wide variety of human performance domains. This is discussed in greater detail in the Taub et al paper. [Conflict of interest note - I am a coauthor on this paper].

In conclusion, it is my professional opinion that the Cosper et al (2009) IM efficacy study suffers from major methodological flaws which make the study an invalid study of the effectiveness of the IM treatment program.

Technorati Tags: psychology, neurotechnology, neuroscience, Interactive Metronome, mental time keeping, IQ brain clock, interval timing, brain clock, brain rhythm, rhythm perception, rhythm production

Brain rhythm treatment efficacy: Can we fine-tune our brain clocks?

Brain rhythm. Got it? Need it? Is it important? Can you modify your brain rhythm to improve cognitive or motor performance?

I'm pleased to announce the availability of the Institute for Applied Psychometrics Research Report No. 9: The efficacy of rhythm-based (mental timing) treatments with subjects with a variety of clinical disorders: A brief review of theoretical, diagnostic, and treatment research (McGrew & Vega, 2009).

As faithful readers of the IQ Brain Clock blog know, I started this mental-timing niche blog after serving as a consultant on a neurotechnology intervention treatment program that produced positive academic outcomes in elementary school-age children (Taub, McGrew & Keith, 2007). Since that time I've systematically tracked research related to the concept of human temporal processing and mental timing--which I often refer to as the "IQ Brain Clock." Whenever I've found a research report of interest I've tried to share it via a short blog post. As these studies accumulated, it became clear there was a huge empirical and theoretical literature base, across a very diverse array of disciplines (e.g., neurorehabilitation, biology, neurobiology, neurochemistry, music perception, psychology, neuropsychology, rehabilitation sciences, etc.) that supported the importance of mental time-keeping in understanding an array of human behaviors. As a scientist this has had me intellectually curious for a number of years.

Yet...the applied hat I also wear constantly gnawed at me regarding the potential applied relevance. Even though there was clear evidence for some kind of neural-based brain timing, were there any practical implications? More specifically, could this research lead to improved diagnoses/classification of clinical disorders (and/or atypical development) in a number of human behavior domains and, furthermore, did it have potential treatment implications. I had seen the potential treatment implications in the Taub et al. study, but that was only one study.

Over the past week I, together with Amy Vega (Clinical Education Director at Interactive Metronome; IM), finally gathered together all the research citations I had been accumulating (over the past 3-4 years) and decided to investigate whether mental timing (temporal processing) research had potential diagnostic implications. More importantly, we wanted to see if mental timing-based treatments (specifically brain rhythm perception and production) had positive implications for education and rehabilitation.

Our "first cut" of this effort is the above IAP Research Report. Below are a few quotes from the report:

does sufficient evidence exist to support the temporal processing (mental timekeeping) theory-diagnosis/classification-treatment three-legged stool? With a few caveats, we believe that collectively the preponderance of positive outcomes (across the 23 listed studies) indicates that rhythm-based mental-timing treatments have merit for clinical use and warrant increased clinical use and research attention

positive treatment outcomes were reported for all four forms of rhythm-based treatment. Positive outcomes were also observed for normal subjects and, more importantly, across a variety of clinical disorders (e.g., aphasia, apraxia, coordination/movement disorders, TBI, CP, Parkinson’s disease,
stroke/CVA, Down’s syndrome, ADHD)

One notable observation of interest is that 15 of the 23 studies (the RAS, AOS-RRT and SMT treatment studies) all employed some form of auditory-based metronome to pace or cue the subjects targeted rhtymic behavior.

We conclude that the use of external metronome-based rhythm tools (tapping to a beat, metronome-based rhythmic pacing, rhythmic-cuing via timed pulses/beats) is a central tool to improving temporal processing and mental-timing.

Our concluding statement was:

given the converging research that points toward a possible neurologically-based domain-general internal mental-timing mechanism (i.e., a potentially modifiable internal brain clock), it is possible that the efficacy of all four classes of rhythm-based treatments are operating (in their own way) on “fine tuning the temporal resolution of the human brain clock.” Our temporal resolution fine-tuning hypothesis is consistent with the temporal resolution power (TRP) hypothesis (Rammsayer & Brandler, 2002, 2007) that indicates that oscillatory brain process are responsible for the efficiency and speed of neural-based information processing. We hypothesize, via the temporal resolution fine-tuning hypothesis, that the positive outcomes for rhythm perception and production based treatments may be due to these treatments increasing the efficiency and speed of information processing in brain-based neural networks responsible for the planning, execution and synchronization of complex human behaviors.

We urge both academic and applied researchers to embrace the temporal processing (mental timing) theory--diagnostic/classification--treatment literature reviewed in this report and increase efforts to understand the links between the three legs of the mental timing stool. The positive effects of current “brain rhythm” treatment programs for many types of disorders, across a variety of human performance domains, is encouraging, particularly when placed in the context of the emerging science and theory of the human brain clock.

We consider this report as a first step--providing the foundation for future expanded manuscripts and potential research. The PDF text of the report can be downloaded or viewed by clicking here. The report also includes three appendices. Appendix A (click here), B (click here), and C (click here). Please note that Appendix A and B are large (approx 11 and 9 MB each) and you might want to download then when hooked directly to the internet (not via wifi).

Finally, we would be remiss if we did not report our potential conflicts of interest. These are noted on the cover page of the report. Amy Vega is Clinical Education Director for Interactive Metronome (IM), one of the four major brain rhythm interventions covered in this brief research report. Myself, I'm not employed by IM, but I do serve on the IM Scientific Advisory board.

Enjoy the report. Tune up your brain...get it in rhythm with this emerging field of brain-based science and applied technology.

PS - Appendix B includes "foundational" basic or theoretical mental timing research reports. Unfortunately, our PDF software technology did not allow for the integration of all the PDF files in this appendix. If you want the read the additional six manuscripts, they can be found under the Key Research Articles section of this blog---they are designated with an asterisk (*)

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, neuropsychology, neuroscience, neurotechnology, brain fitness, brain rhythm, rhythm perception, rhythm production, mental time-keeping, brain clock, interval timing, metronome pacing, metronome treatments

Mental timing and reading ach study "in press"

The following manuscript has been accepted for publication in the journal Psychology in the Schools. Yes...I am a coauthor and readers should check out my prior conflict of interest disclosure notice regarding my involvement as an external consultant to Interactive Metronome.

I will post more information once the article is formally published.

• Taub, G., McGrew, K. & Keith, T. (in press). Improvements in interval time tracking and effects on reading achievement. Psychology in the Schools.

Abstract

• This paper examines the effect of improvements in timing/rhythmicity on students’ reading achievement. A total of 86 participants, attending a public charter school receiving Title 1 funding, completed pre- and post-test measures of reading achievement from the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement (Woodcock, McGrew, Mather, 2001), Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1999a), Test of Word Reading Efficiency (Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1999b), and Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency (Mather, Hamil, Allen, & Roberts, 2004). Students in the experimental group participated in a 4 week intervention designed to improve their timing/rhythmicity by reducing the latency in their response to a synchronized metronome beat, referred to as a synchronized metronome tapping (SMT) intervention. The intervention required, on average, 15 daily 50 minute sessions. The results from this non-academic intervention indicate the experimental group’s post-test scores on select measures of reading were significantly higher than the non-treatment control group’s scores at the end of 4 weeks. This paper provides a brief overview of domain-general cognitive abilities believed effected by SMT interventions and provides a preliminary hypothesis to explain how a non-academic intervention designed to improve timing/rhythmicity can demonstrate a statistically significant effect on students’ reading achievement scores.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, special education, reading, Grw, achievement, education, mental timing, interval timing, brain clock, SMT, IM, Interactive Metronome, learning, neuropsychology, neurotechnology, neuroscience, brain fitness

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Metronome training improves reading achievement

I previously blogged (a self-serving plug) about an "in press" research article that demonstrated that a mental-timing based intervention (Interactive Metronome; IM) improved reading achievement in elementary school children. The research summarized in this article suggests that a brain-based intervention may improve the resolution of a school child's internal brain clock and, in turn, produce positive reading achievement outcomes. [Check out my prior post for a necessary conflict of interest disclosure.] Also...click here for additional IM-related posts (@ the IQ Brain Clock) and mental time-keeping posts at my sister blog (IQ's Corner).

Below is the reference citation (with link to pdf copy of the article) and abstract.

This is exciting stuff. If the reader wants additional information regarding possible reasons for the success of this intervention, check out the Time Doc's recent IM Keynote PowerPoint presentation.

In addition, I've added this article to the "key research articles" section of this blog.

• Taub, G., McGrew, K. & Keith, T. (2007). Improvements in interval time tracking and effects on reading achievement, Psychology in the Schools, 44 (8), 849-863. (click here to view)

• This study examined the effect of improvements in timing/rhythmicity on students’ reading achievement. 86 participants completed pre- and post-test measures of reading achievement (i.e., Woodcock-Johnson III, Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Test of Word Reading Efficiency, and Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency). Students in the experimental group completed a 4-week intervention designed to improve their timing/rhythmicity by reducing the latency in their response to a synchronized metronome beat, referred to as a synchronized metronome tapping (SMT) intervention. The results from this non-academic intervention indicate the experimental group’s post-test scores on select measures of reading were significantly higher than the non-treatment control group’s scores at the end of 4 weeks. This paper provides a brief overview of domain-general cognitive abilities believed effected by SMT interventions and provides a preliminary hypothesis to explain how this non-academic intervention can demonstrate a statistically significant effect on students’ reading achievement scores.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, education, neuropsychology, IQ, intelligence, reading, reading achievement, dyslexia, mental time keeping, brain clock, temporal processing, Interactive Metronome

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Journal Alert: Neuropsychology - Volume 27, Issue 1

Neuropsychology Volume 27, Issue 1, (Jan)

Injury versus noninjury factors as predictors of postconcussive symptoms following mild traumatic brain injury in children.

Page 1-12

McNally, Kelly A.; Bangert, Barbara; Dietrich, Ann; Nuss, Kathy; Rusin, Jerome; Wright, Martha; Taylor, H. Gerry; Yeates, Keith Owen

Impairments in real-world executive function increase from childhood to adolescence in autism spectrum disorders.

Page 13-18

Rosenthal, Michael; Wallace, Gregory L.; Lawson, Rachel; Wills, Meagan C.; Dixon, Eunice; Yerys, Benjamin E.; Kenworthy, Lauren

Metamemory in children with autism: Exploring "feeling-of-knowing" in episodic and semantic memory.

Page 19-27

Wojcik, Dominika Z.; Moulin, Chris J. A.; Souchay, Celine

Impaired implicit sequence learning in Parkinson's disease patients with freezing of gait.

Page 28-36

Vandenbossche, Jochen; Deroost, Natacha; Soetens, Eric; Coomans, Daphné; Spildooren, Joke; Vercruysse, Sarah; Nieuwboer, Alice; Kerckhofs, Eric

Theory of mind deficits in Parkinson's disease: A product of executive dysfunction?

Page 37-47

Eddy, Clare M.; Beck, Sarah R.; Mitchell, Ian J.; Praamstra, Peter; Pall, Hardev S.

Visual search and the aging brain: Discerning the effects of age-related brain volume shrinkage on alertness, feature binding, and attentional control.

Page 48-59

Müller-Oehring, Eva M.; Schulte, Tilman; Rohlfing, Torsten; Pfefferbaum, Adolf; Sullivan, Edith V.

High-level, but not low-level, motion perception is impaired in patients with schizophrenia.

Page 60-68

Kandil, Farid I.; Pedersen, Anya; Wehnes, Jana; Ohrmann, Patricia

The influence of normal aging and Alzheimer's disease in autobiographical memory highly related to the self.

Page 69-78

Martinelli, Pénélope; Anssens, Adèle; Sperduti, Marco; Piolino, Pascale

Semantic processing in connected speech at a uniformly early stage of autopsy-confirmed Alzheimer's disease.

Page 79-85

Ahmed, Samrah; de Jager, Celeste A.; Haigh, Anne-Marie; Garrard, Peter

The apolipoprotein E genotype predicts longitudinal transitions to mild cognitive impairment but not to Alzheimer's dementia: Findings from a nationally representative study.

Page 86-94

Brainerd, C. J.; Reyna, V. F.; Petersen, R. C.; Smith, G. E.; Kenney, A. E.; Gross, C. J.; Taub, E. S.; Plassman, B. L.; Fisher, G. G.

Four-year outcome of mild cognitive impairment: The contribution of executive dysfunction.

Page 95-106

Aretouli, Eleni; Tsilidis, Konstantinos K.; Brandt, Jason

Correction to Epstein et al. (2011).

Page 106

Epstein, Jeffery N.; Langberg, Joshua M.; Rosen, Paul J.; Graham, Amanda; Narad, Megan E.; Antonini, Tanya N.; Brinkman, William B.; Froehlich, Tanya; Simon, John O.; Altaye, Mekibib

Neuropsychological performance and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder subtypes and symptom dimensions.

Page 107-120

Nikolas, Molly A.; Nigg, Joel T.

Rhythmic auditory stimulation influences syntactic processing in children with developmental language disorders.

Page 121-131

Przybylski, Lauranne; Bedoin, Nathalie; Krifi-Papoz, Sonia; Herbillon, Vania; Roch, Didier; Léculier, Laure; Kotz, Sonja A.; Tillmann, Barbara

Effortful and automatic cognitive inhibition in adults with Tourette's syndrome.

Page 132-140

Drury, Helena; Stern, Jeremy; Wilkinson, Verity; Parikh, Nimmi; Channon, Shelley