Mind wandering greater during massed practice (cramming) vs spaced-out practice

People Mind Wander More During Massed Than Spaced Inductive Learning.Metcalfe, Janet; Xu, Judy Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Nov 30 , 2015, No Pagination Specified. http://dx.doi.org.ezp1.lib.umn.edu/10.1037/xlm0000216

Abstract

This article investigates the relation between mind wandering and the spacing effect in inductive learning. Participants studied works of art by different artists grouped in blocks, where works by a particular artist were either presented all together successively (the massed condition), or interleaved with the works of other artists (the spaced condition). The works of 24 artists were shown, with 12, 15, or 18 works by each artist being provided as exemplars. Later, different works by the same artists were presented for a test of the artists’ identity. During the course of studying these works, participants were probed for mind wandering. It was found that people mind wandered more when the exemplars were presented in a massed rather than in a spaced manner, especially as the task progressed. There was little mind wandering and little difference between massed and spaced conditions toward the beginning of study. People were better able to correctly attribute the new works to the appropriate artist (inductive learning) when (a) they were in the spaced condition and (b) they had not been mind wandering. This research suggests that inductive learning may be influenced by mind wandering and that the impairment in learning with massed practice (compared to spaced practice) may be attributable, at least in part, to attentional factors—people are “on task” less fully when the stimuli are massed rather than spaced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)

MindHub Pub #2: The Science Behind Interactive Metronome: An Integration of Brain Clock, Temporal Processing, Brain Network and Neurocognitive Research and Theory

[This is an "oldie but goodie" (OBG) post that was originally posted on March 5, 2013]

The second MindHub Pub working paper is now available:  The Science Behind Interactive Metronome:  An Integration of Brain Clock, Temporal Processing, Brain Network and Neurocognitive Research and Theory.  The PDF document can be viewed/downloaded by clicking here.

This working paper is an integration of research and theory that attempts to explain the science behind the positive outcomes of the Interactive Metronome rehabilitative and brain training neurotechnology (the IM effect).  A three-level explanatory model involving three different levels of brain and neurocognitive constructs (McGrew, 2012) is described.   The three-levels are presented in the visual summary in the figure below.  Although the text focuses on explaining the IM effect on cognitive functions (focus, controlled attention, working memory, executive functions), the three-level hypothesized model should be considered a general explanatory framework for understanding the positive IM effect in other human performance domains as well (e.g., recovery from stroke; gait; motor coordination).

The three-level model described here can also be viewed as an IM-free integration of research and theory that explains the relations between the temporal processing (temporal g) of the human brain clock (s), brain regions and networks, brain network communication and synchronization (the parietal-frontal integration theory of intelligence [P-FIT] in particular), and the neurocognitive constructs of attentional control (focus), working memory, and executive functioning.

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Brain networks and fine tunning the networks: An OBG post

[This is an OBG (oldie but goodie) post first posted December 16, 2011]

Man has always known that the brain is the center of human behavior.  Early attempts at understanding which locations in the brain controlled different functions were non-scientific and included such practices as phrenology.  This pseudoscience believed that by feeling the bumps of a persons head it was possible to draw conclusions about specific brain functions and traits of the person.

(double click on any image to enlarge)

Eventually brain science revealed that different regions of the brain where specialized for different specific cognitive processes (but it was not related to the phrenological brain bump maps).  This has been called the modular or functional specialization view of the brain, which is grounded in the conclusion that different brain areas acted more-or-less as independent mechanisms for completing specific cognitive functions.

One of the most exciting developments in contemporary neuroscience is the recognition that the human brain processes information via different brain circuits or loops which at a higher level can be studied as large scale brain networks. Although the modular view still provides important brain insights, the accumulating evidence suggests that it has serious limitations and might in fact be misleading (Bresslor and Menon, 2010).  One of the best summaries of this cutting edge research is that by Bresslor and Menon.

Large scale brain network research suggests that cognitive functioning is the result of interactions or communication between different brain systems distributed throughout the brain. That is, when performing a particular task, just one isolated brain area is not working alone.  Instead, different areas of the brain, often far apart from each other within the geographic space of the brain, are communicating through a fast-paced synchronized set of brain signals.  These networks can be considered preferred pathways for sending signals back and forth to perform a specific set of cognitive or motor behaviors. 

To understand preferred neural pathways, think of walking on a college campus where there are paved sidewalks connecting different buildings that house specialized knowledge and activities.  If you have spent anytime on a college campus, one typically finds foot-worn short cuts in the grass that are the preferred (and more efficient) means by which most people move between building A and B.  The combined set of frequently used paved and unpaved pathways are the most efficient or preferred pathways for moving efficiently between buildings.  The human brain has developed preferred communication pathways that link together different brain circuits or loops in order to quickly and efficiently complete specific tasks. 

According to Bresslor and Menon (2010), “a large-scale functional network can therefore be defined as a collection of interconnected brain areas that interact to perform circumscribed functions.”  More importantly, component brain areas in these large-scale brain networks perform different roles.  Some act as controllers or task switchers that coordinate, direct and synchronize the involvement of other brain networks.  Other brain networks handle the flow of sensory or motor information and engage in conscious manipulation of the information in the form of “thinking.” 

As illustrated in the figure above, neuroscientists have identified a number of core brain network nodes or circuits.  The important new insight is that these various nodes or circuits are integrated together into a grander set of higher-level core functional brain networks.  Three important core networks are receiving considerable attention in explaining human behavior. 

Major functional brain networks

The default mode (DMN) or default brain network (shown in blue) is what your brain does when not engaged in specific tasks.  It is the busy or active part of your brain when you are mentally passive.  According to Bresslor and Brennon the “DMN is seen to collectively comprise an integrated system for autobiographical, self-monitoring and social cognitive functions.”  It has also been characterized as responsible for REST (rapid episodic spontaneous thinking).  In other words, this is the spontaneous mind wandering and internal self-talk and thinking we engage in when not working on a specific task or, when completing a task that is so automatized (e.g., driving a car) that our mind starts to wander and generate spontaneous thoughts.  As I have discussed previously (at IM-HOME blog), the default network is responsible for the unquiet or noisy mind.  And, it is likely that people differ in amount of spontaneous mind wandering (which can be both positive creative thinking or distracting thoughts), with some having a very unquiet mind that is hard to turn off, while others can turn off the inner thought generation and self-talk and display tremendous self-focus or controlled attention to perform a cognitively or motorically demanding task.  A very interesting discussion of the serendipitous discovery and explanation of the default brain network is in the following soon to be published scientific article.

The salience network (shown in yellow) is a controller or network switcher.  It monitors information from within (internal input) and from the external world arounding us, which is constantly bombarding us with information.  Think of the salience network as the air traffic controller of the brain.  Its job is to scan all information bombarding us from the outside world and also that from within our own brains.  This controller decides which information is most urgent, task relevant, and which should receive priority in the que of sending brain signals to areas of the brain for processing.  This controlling network must suppress either the default or executive networks depending on the task at hand.  It must suppress one, and activate the other.  Needless to say, this decision making and distribution of information must require exquisite and efficient neural timing as regulated by the brain clock(s).

Finally, the central-executive network (CEN; shown in red) “is engaged in higher-order cognitive and attentional control.”  In other words, when you must engage your conscious brain to work on a problem, place information in your working memory as you think, focus your attention on a task or problem, etc., you are  “thinking” and must focus your controlled attention.  As I understand this research, the salience or controller network is a multi-switching mechanism that is constantly initiating dynamic switching between the REST (sponatenous and often creative unique mind wandering) and thinking networks to best match the current demands you are facing.

According to Bresslor and Melon, not only is this large scale brain network helping us better understand normal cognitive and motor behavior, it is providing insights into clinical disorders of the brain.  Poor synchronization between the three major brain networks has been implicated in Alzheimer’s, schizophrenia, autism, the manic phase of bipolar and Parkinson’s (Bresslor and Melon, 2010), disorders that have all been linked to a brain or neural timing (i.e, the brain clock or clocks).  I also believe that ADHD would be implicated.  If the synchronized millisecond based communication between and within these large networks is compromised, and if the network traffic controller (the salience network) is disrupted in particular, efficient and normal cognition or motor behavior can be compromised.

I find this emerging research fascinating.  I believe it provides a viable working hypothesis to explain why different brain fitness or training neurotechnologies have shown promise in improving cognitive function in working memory, ADHD, and other clinical disorders.  It is my current hypothesis that various brain training technologies may focus on different psychological constructs (e.g., working memory; planning; focus or controlled attention), but their effectiveness may all be directly or indirectly facilitating the sychronization between the major brain networks.  More specifically, by strengthening the ability to invoke the salience or controller network, a person can learn to suppress, inhibit or silence the REST-producing default brain network more efficiently, long enough to exert more controlled attention or focus when invoking the thinking central executive network.  Collectively these brain fitness technologies may all improving the use of those abilities called executive function, or what I have called the personal brain manager.  Those technologies that focus on rhythm or brain timing are those I find most fascinating.  For example, the recent example of the use of melodic intonation therapy with Congresswoman Gabby Giffords (she suffered serious brain trauma due to a gun shot) demonstrates how rhythm-based brain timing therapies may help repair destroyed preferred and efficient neural pathways or, develop new pathways, much like the development of a new foot worn pathway in the grass on a college campus if a preferred pathway is disrupted by a new building, temporary work or rennovation, or some other destruction of a preferred and efficient network of movement path.

To understand the beauty of the synchronized brain, it is best to see the patterns of brain network connections in action.  Below is a video called the “Meditating Mind.”  I urge you to view the video for a number of reasons.  

A number of observations should be clear.  First, during the first part of the video the brain is seen as active even during a resting state.  This is visual evidence of the silent private dialogue (REST) of the default mode or network of the brain.  Next, the video mentions the rhythm of increased and decreased neural activation as the brain responds to no visual information or presentation of a video.  The changes in color and sound demonstrate the rich rhythmic synchronization of large and different parts of the brain, depending on whether the brain is engaged in a passive or active cognitive task.  The beauty of the rapidly changing and spreading communication should make it obvious that efficient rhythmic synchronization of timing of brain signals to and from different networks or circuits is critical to efficient brain functioning.

Finally, the contrast between the same brain under normal conditions and when engaged in a form of meditation is striking.  Clearly when this person’s brain is mediating, the brain is responding with a change in rates and frequency of brain network activation and synchrony.  As I described in my personal IM-HOME based experience post, mastering Interactive Metronome (IM) therapy requires “becoming one with the tone”…which sounds similar to the language of those who engage in various forms of meditation.  Could it be that the rhythmic demans of IM, which require an individual to “lock on” to the auditory tone and stay in that synchronized, rhythmic and repetitive state for as long as possible, might be similar to the underlying mechanics of some forms of meditation, which also seek to suppress irrelevant and distracting thoughts and eventually “let the mind go"---posibsly to follow a specific train of thought with complete and distraction free focus. 

Yes…this is speculation.  I am trying to connect research-based and personal experience dots.  It is exciting.  My IM-HOME based induce personal focus experience  makes sense from the perspective of the function and interaction between the three major large scale brain networks.

Mind wandering: Annual Review of Psychology review

A nice, concise review of the mind wandering research is now available in the Annual Review of Psychology. Click on images to enlarge.

Previous posts on mind wandering can be found at the Brain Clock blog at this link.







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The external/internal-directed cognition (EDC/IDC) framework

I just skimmed the article below. I like the way it uses the terms external/internal-directed (ECD/ICD) cognition framework to discuss the differences and relations between the activities of the default brain network and the executive control networks (click here for excellent article explaining these two networks)

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I resonate to this EDC/IDC framework as it is relevant to my white paper on improving attentional control (via IM training--although the paper, IMHO, is more about how different brain training programs may work). That hypothesized model is in the figure above, and can be found at the MindHub.



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Working memory training (n-back task) improves fluid intelligence (Gf) 3-4 IQ points

Interesting meta-analysis suggestingthat working memory training, via the n-back task, over a relatively short period of time, can improve fluid intelligence/reasoning (Gf). Conservative estimate of 3-4 Gf IQ points improvement. Click on images to enlarge.









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"I think...therefore IM" Interactive Metronome Keynote a year ago....Slide show

I think...therefore IM from Kevin McGrew

IQs Reading: ARP review article on executive functions

An excellent new review article regarding executive functions in the latest Annual Review of Psychology. The images below will provide a sneak peak of the content of the article (click on images to enlarge). I am making an annotated copy of the article available here vis the IQs Readings feature.

 

 

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"I think...therefore IM" (Interactive Metronome)--Dr. Kevin McGrew IM 2012 Keynote Conference presentation

Keynote presentation by Dr. Kevin McGrew at the 2012 Interactive Metronome professional conference in San Antonio, Texas. Dr. McGrew presents his three-levels of interpretation research and theory-based hypothesis re: the reason IM improves cognitive performance across different domains. The primary message focuses on improving focus (controlled attention), working memory and executive functions. Recent brain network research implicates improve brain network communication via white matter tracts, particularly the Parietal-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT) of intelligence. 

Taping was from a distance so the audio, at times, is weak. Listening with ear buds suggested.  Also, a non-audio version of the complete set of PPT slides is available for more reflective viewing via my SlideShare account.

[Heads up - the "cat" video clip near the beginning is not a mistake.  Don't think that YouTube has done something weird--I comment on the interpretation of the cat video after it is over]

Below is a snippet of a part of the larger video that explains the key concepts and PPT-based animations that are used in the Keynote presentation.

Finally, if you are unfamiliar with the  IM technology, you might want to watch the following brief introductory video before viewing the Keynote video.  The video is a bit dated with regard to current understanding of how IM may work, as explained in the Keynote video above.  However, it is a good video for understanding the task demands of IM

As noted in my conflict of interest disclosure statement, I am an external paid consultant to IM (Director of Research and Science)

Research byte: Video games, life-long learning and brain plasticity

Very thought provoking review in the prestigious Annual Review of Neuroscience that provides insights into the possible domain-general learning that may occur during some video games that may generalize to other learning domains and brain plasticity.

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www.themindhub.com

Research byte: More support for the P-FIT model of intelligence

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www.themindhub.com

Research byte: Executive functions and self-regulation

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Dr. Kevin McGrew (aka, The Time Doc; IQ McGrew) on Voice of America this Friday--don't touch that dial

Little ole' me (Kevin McGrew; aka "IQ McGrew" and "The Time Doc") will be talking on Voice of America radio (Focus Point Review) this Friday re: my interests and research-based explanations of brain-clock based brain fitness technologies (Interactive Metronome in particular). Please tune in.

After the shows are completed they are available for later listening as MP3 files or free Podcasts from iTunes. I will share this off-line URL information later.


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Interactive Metronome neurotechnology measurement system developmental validity evidence

I just guest posted some material at the IM-HOME blog re: developmental validity evidence for the timing measurement system that is at the core of the Interactive Metronome neurotechnology. There is clear validity evidence that the IM technology is measuring a valid construct of human cognitive abilities, which I have hypothesized to be in the domain of executive functions (esp. controlled attention and working memory). Interested readers should click here.





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On-demand focus: IM neurotechnology generated meditative type focus

I have made a follow-up post to the Brain Clock post suggesting a possible link between meditation and synchronized metronome tapping (in the form of Interactive Metronome neurotechnology training)--both being able to focus controlled attention and shut down the mind-wandering busy self-talk of the default brain network. This new post is at the IM-HOME blog. - Posted using BlogPress from Kevin McGrew's iPad

Technorati Tags: psychology,neuropsychology,neuroscience,brain,brain fitness,mental time-keeping,IQ Brain Clock,Brain Clock,brain rhythm,Interactive Metronome,temporal processing,temporal g,neurotechnology,,brain synchronization,meditation,controlled attention,IM-HOME,executive functions,focus,on-demand-focus,default brain network

Silencing the unquiet mind: Interactive Metronome and controlled attention

See my task analysis (based on pesonal experience) of the brain clock based Interactive Metronome neurotechology at the following link. Using focus or controlled attention to silence the default brain network that produces REST (rapid episodic spontaneous thinking)

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Miyake and Shah's (1999) book on models of working memory

The complete PDF copy of this chapter is available at Dr. Miyake's web page (link below).

http://psych-www.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf

Info regarding the book is available at the followowing link.

http://www.amazon.com/Models-Working-Memory-Mechanisms-Maintenance/dp/0521587212









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Dorsolateral PreFrontal Cortex educational and fun rap video

DorsoLateral PreFrontal CortexTechnorati Tags: neuroscience, neuropsychology, prefrontal cortex, executive functions, dorsolateral prefrontal cortext, DLPFC, DLPFC rap

Research Byte: Why we sometimes struggle with cognitive self-regulation

I think the following "in press" article is important. Why? Because I have been actively involved in reading research to better understand cognitive performance (working memory and executive attention in particular), the IQ Brain Clock (role of mental timing in human performance), and neuro-technology interventions (e.g., Interactive Metronome) that seem to improve cognitive efficiency. Across these different strands of research I have CONSTANTLY run across a number of common factors. In particular, I am constantly finding the dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex (PFC) as being critical to cognitive efficiency (working memory and cognitive processing speed), which in turn impacts intellectual functioning, especially Gf or fluid reasoning. The same brain area is implicated in mental timing and IM-interventions.

The article below continues to suggest a prominent role of the dlPFC, this time in self-regulation behavior. Of importance, IMHO, is the conclusion (near the end of the article) that this may be a domain-general mechanism. This is important, as it is consistent with my hypothesis why neuro-tech IM and other working memory interventions seem to improve performance across vastly different human performance domains. Clearly the dlPFC, and the functions it regulates (working memory, controlled executive attention, mental timing), is important and focal to understanding a number of related areas of research.


Heatherington & Wagner Cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation failure Review Article. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available online 26 January 2011

Abstract

Self-regulatory failure is a core feature of many social and mental health problems. Self-regulation can be undermined by failures to transcend overwhelming temptations, negative moods and resource depletion, and when minor lapses in self-control snowball into self-regulatory collapse. Cognitive neuroscience research suggests that successful self-regulation is dependent on top-down control from the prefrontal cortex over subcortical regions involved in reward and emotion. We highlight recent neuroimaging research on self-regulatory failure, the findings of which support a balance model of self-regulation whereby self-regulatory failure occurs whenever the balance is tipped in favor of subcortical areas, either due to particularly strong impulses or when prefrontal function itself is impaired. Such a model is consistent with recent findings in the cognitive neuroscience of addictive behavior, emotion regulation and decision-making.

Click on image to enlarge for better readability.


Article Outline

The advantages of self-control
Self-regulation failure
Negative moods
Lapse-activated consumption
Cue exposure
Self-regulatory resource depletion
Functional neuroimaging studies of self-regulation
Regulation of appetitive behaviors
Regulation of emotions
Regulation of attitudes and prejudice
Prefrontal–subcortical balance model of self-regulation
Why do people fail at self-regulation?
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
References


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mental timing IQ Brain Clock brain clock temporal processing metronome mental time-keeping brain timing educational psychology school psychology special education neuropsychology neuroscience neurology brain rhythm rhythm processing rhythm perception intelligence cognitive abilities working memory attention executive attention self-regulation prefrontal cortex.dosrolateral PFC

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Thoughts on importance of cognitive attention -- The Fifth Agreement

It is clear that attention is very important in cognitive functioning. As mentioned frequently at two of my blogs, I believe that controlled executive attention is one of the key cognitive dimensions in intellectual performance, particularly as it relates to working memory and executive function efficiency. I further have hypothesized that many of the current neuroscience based brain-fitness/training programs may all share a common element in their success--they all may fine-tuning controlled executive attention.

With the above in mind, I found the following quote of interest in a general self-help book I just started reading...yes, at times, I find reading such books useful and informative. As I read this one, I find that I much of the "wisdom" in the book can be understood from research in cognitive psychology. The book is the Fifth Agreement.

The attention is very important in humans because it’s the part of the mind that makes it possible for us to concentrate on a single object or thought out of a whole range of possibilities. Through the attention, information from the outside is conveyed to the inside and vice versa. The attention is the channel we use to send and receive messages from human to human. It’s like a bridge from one mind to another mind; we open the bridge with sounds, signs, symbols, touch — with any event that hooks the attention. This is how we teach, and this is how we learn. We cannot teach anything if we don’t have someone’s attention; we cannot learn anything if we don’t pay attention.


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IQs corner tag generator intelligence IQ tests IQ scores CHC theory Cattell-Horn-Carroll human cognitive abilities psychology school psychology individual differences cognitive psychology neuropsychology special education educational psychology psychometrics psychological assessment psychological measurement IQs Corner attention controlled executive attention executive functions executive functioning The Fifth Agreement