Timing Training in Female Soccer Players: Effects on Skilled Movement Performance and Brain Responses

Timing Training in Female Soccer Players: Effects on Skilled Movement Performance and Brain Responses. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. Article link.

Marius Sommer, Charlotte K. Häger, Carl Johan Boraxbekk and Louise Rönnqvist

Abstract

Although trainers and athletes consider “good timing skills” critical for optimal sport
performance, little is known in regard to how sport-specific skills may benefit from timing training. Accordingly, this study investigated the effects of timing training on soccer skill performance and the associated changes in functional brain response in elite- and sub-elite female soccer players. Twenty-five players (mean age 19.5 years; active in the highest or second highest divisions in Sweden), were randomly assigned to either an experimental- or a control group. The experimental group (n = 12) was subjected to a 4-week program (12 sessions) of synchronized metronome training (SMT). We evaluated effects on accuracy and variability in a soccer cross-pass task. The associated brain response was captured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while watching videos with soccer-specific actions. SMT improved soccer cross-pass performance, with a significant increase in outcome accuracy, combined with a decrease in outcome variability. SMT further induced changes in the underlying brain response associated with observing a highly familiar soccer-specific action, denoted as decreased activation in the cerebellum post SMT. Finally, decreased cerebellar activation was associated with improved cross-pass performance and sensorimotor synchronization. These findings suggest a more efficient neural recruitment during action observation after SMT. To our knowledge, this is the first controlled study providing behavioral and neurophysiological evidence that timing training may positively influence soccer-skill, while strengthening the action-perception coupling via enhanced sensorimotor synchronization abilities, and thus influencing the underlying brain responses.

Conclusion

In summary, this is the first controlled study demonstrating that improved motor timing and multisensory integration, as an effect of SMT, also is associated with changes in functional brain response. The present study provides both behavioral and neurophysiological evidence that timing training positively influences soccer-skill, strengthens the action-perception coupling by means of enhanced sensorimotor synchronization abilities, and affect underlying brain responses. These findings are in accordance with the idea that SMT may result in increased brain communication efficiency and synchrony between brain regions (McGrew, 2013), which in the present study was evident by reduced activation within brain areas important for temporal planning, movement coordination and action recognition and understanding (cerebellum). Also, our results complement findings indicating that the cerebellum plays an important role in the action-perception coupling (Christensenetal.,2014),and confirm recent theories supporting a cognitive-perceptual role of the cerebellum (e.g., Roth et al., 2013).Probing the influence of timing training on the underlying brain activation during soccer specific action observation is an important approach as it provides a window into the brain plasticity associated with non-task specific (timing) training, and to the underlying brain activation of skilled performance. The present study suggests that the underlying brain activation during action observation, which is claimed to be important for action recognition and understanding (e.g., Rizzolatti and Craighero, 2004), may be influenced in other ways than through task-specific training (e.g., Calvo-Merino et al., 2005) or observational learning (e.g., Cross et al., 2013). Such knowledge of how SMT may alter brain activity within regions facilitating the action perception coupling is likely important for enhancing training techniques within sports, as well as for developing new rehabilitative techniques for many clinical populations.



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Interactive Metronome study: Clapping in time parallels literacy and calls upon overlapping neural mechanisms in early readers

Clapping in time parallels literacy and calls upon overlapping neural mechanisms in early readers

Annals of the New York Academy Of Science. Article link here.

Link to complete paper at IM site.

Silvia Bonacina Jennifer Krizman Travis White‐Schwoch Nina Krau

Abstract

The auditory system is extremely precise in processing the temporal information of perceptual events and using these cues to coordinate action. Synchronizing movement to a steady beat relies on this bidirectional connection between sensory and motor systems, and activates many of the auditory and cognitive processes used when reading. Here, we use Interactive Metronome, a clinical intervention technology requiring an individual to clap her hands in time with a steady beat, to investigate whether the links between literacy and synchronization skills, previously established in older children, are also evident in children who are learning to read. We tested 64 typically developing children (ages 5–7 years) on their synchronization abilities, neurophysiological responses to speech in noise, and literacy skills. We found that children who have lower variability in synchronizing have higher phase consistency, higher stability, and more accurate envelope encoding—all neurophysiological response components linked to language skills. Moreover, performing the same task with visual feedback reveals links with literacy skills, notably processing speed, phonological processing, word reading, spelling, morphology, and syntax. These results suggest that rhythm skills and literacy call on overlapping neural mechanisms, supporting the idea that rhythm training may boost literacy in part by engaging sensory‐motor systems.


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Aurora shooting victim benefits from music in brain injury recovery

Yet another interesting video reporting on the use of the rhythmic aspects of music in brain injury recovery...similar to the Gabby Giffords story.  Additional clinical evidence of the importance of temporal processing in the brain.

The brain clock as a "jack-of-all-trades" brain mechanism that can be fine-tuned to improve human performance

My second post at the IM-HOME blog, with the above title, can be viewed by clicking here.

More research supports brain rhythm training benefits for stroke patients.

Research review suggests positive benefits of brain rhythm training (rhythmic auditory stimulation-RAS)/music for stroke rehab. clients.  This is consistent with a prior special report posted at the IQ Brain clock---The efficacy of rhythm-based (mental timing) treatments with subjects with a variety of clinical disorders:  A brief review of theoretical, diagnostic, and treatment research (McGrew & Vega, 2009).

Technorati Tags: Psychology, school psychology, educational psychology, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, neurosciences, neurotechnology, neurology, brain, brain function, cognitive abilities, intelligence, IQ brain clock, brain timing, mental timekeeping, brain rhythms, rhythm perception, brain synchrony, brain synchronization, neural synchrony, neural synchronization, brain clock, brain injury, stroke rehabilitation, RAS, music therapy

Good readers have good brain "conductors" (like a good symphony conductor)

A news report of a research implicating the importance of mental timing connections in the brain (temporal connectivity) and the analogy of a good conductor getting various portions of the brain "working together" in rhythm as one possible key to understanding severe reading disabilities.

Technorati Tags: psychology, speech and language, school psychology, special education, educational psychology, reading disabilities, dyslexia, LD, brain timing, brain clock, temporal connectivity, temporal processing, brain clock

More on brain synchrony and brain rhythms

Yet another research report linking working memory and sychronization of brain rhythms across neural networks in the brain.  Brain synchrony.  Brain rhythm.  Concepts the seem to be surfacing repeatedly in research from a number of brain-based disciplines.

Technorati Tags: Psychology, school psychology, educational psychology, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, neurosciences, neurotechnology, neurology, brain, brain function, cognitive abilities, intelligence, IQ brain clock, brain timing, mental timekeeping, brain rhythms, rhythm perception, brain synchrony, brain synchronization, neural synchrony, neural synchronization, brain clock, working memory

Rhythm-based intervention: RhythmBee

 I just ran across another Rhythm-based educational intervention called RhythmBee. What is on the their web page is all I know.  This is an FYI notice, and does not represent any endorsement of the intervention by the blogmaster.  I would need to see empirical research studies before rendering any opinion.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, special education, neuropsychology, mental timing, mental time-keeping, IQ Brain Clock, rhythm, rhythm perception, rhythm production

Brain rhythm treatment effectiveness: More complex multisensory synchronization may be better?

In IAP Research Report # 9 (Brain rhythm treatment efficacy:  Can we fine-tune our brain clocks), it was concluded (after reviewing 23 studies) that "rhythm-based mental-timing treatments have merit for clinical use and warrant increased clinical use and research attention."  Additionally, it was concluded that:

• Positive treatment outcomes were reported for four forms of rhythm-based treatment. Positive outcomes were also observed for normal subjects and, more importantly, across a variety of clinical disorders (e.g., aphasia, apraxia, coordination/movement disorders, TBI, CP, Parkinson’s disease, stroke/CVA, Down’s syndrome, ADHD)

• Most rhythm-based brain-based interventions (the RAS, AOS-RRT and SMT treatment studies) all employed some form of auditory-based metronome to pace or cue the subjects targeted rhythmic behavior.

• External metronome-based rhythm tools (tapping to a beat, metronome-based rhythmic pacing, rhythmic-cuing via timed pulses/beats) is a central tool to improving temporal processing and mental-timing.

In this context, I was excited to see the recent article by Wing, Doumas & Welchman (2010)--the abstract of the study which I posted this past week.  Wing is the Wing of the Wing-Kristofferson two-level model of rhythm-based synchronization.  Thus, although the current study only focused on n=8 subjects, the research questions, methodology, and quality of research is based on a lengthy program of research and theorizing by Wing and associates.  In this context, I find their findings worthy of this special blog post.  A copy of the article can be viewed by clicking here.

As we all know (from reading this blog), synchronization is a crucial aspect of many forms of skilled human performance.  In many everyday and complex behaviors our CNS is often bombarded by multiple forms of sensory stimuli from which our brain seeks information to fine tune synchronization of time-dependent behaviors.  The current Wing study focused on whether synchronization of behaviors occurs best under a single feedback modality (e.g., auditory cues only) or when the CNS must process similar timing feedback from two sensory modalities concurrently (e.g., auditory and visual; auditory and haptic). 

Common sense suggests that the performance would probably be best when the brain only needs to focus on one form of time-based synchronization feedback (e.g., auditory only).  But...research suggest this is not the case.  The literature reviewed in the article, as well as the specific study reported (looking at synchronization of behavior under single or multiple sensory feedback conditions), favors a cue combination model of synchronization.  Whether auditory+visual synchronization feedback or auditory+haptic feedback, the brain, although tending to favor and weight the importance of one modality over the other (e.g., auditory performance feedback tends to dominate over visual when provided concurrently), appears to benefit from having more than one form of feedback.  Apparently the CNS combines feedback from different senses in a differential weighting algorithm (i.e., pays attention to one form of feedback more and gives it more weight in adjusting performance) which increases the precision of synchronization of behaviors.

Although replication is needed, this study suggests that rhythm-based mental timing or synchronization treatments (e.g., Interactive Metronome;  see conflict of interest notice) may be most effective when multisensory feedback is provided to subjects...and not just a single form of feedback.  Of course, there will always be individual differences and some individuals may benefit more from a single form of feedback (e.g., auditory beeps only).  Research that would identify individuals who do not benefit from the advantages of multisensory feedback would be of interest.  My only criticism of this study is the failure of the authors to hypothesize what occurs at the neurological level when multisensory cue feedback is provided---i.e., why does it improve performance?

For now...it appears that "more is better."

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, neuropsychology, neuroscience, neurotechnology, metronome, Interactive Metronome, brain rhythm, IQ brain clock, mental timing, temporal processing, temporal resolution hypothesis, multisensory synchronization, brain synchronization

Research Bytes 2-13-10: Neural synchrony; optimal control theory of movement

Uhlhaas, P. Fre´de´ric, R., Rodriguez, E., Rotarska-Jagiela1,A. & Singer, W. (2010).  Neural synchrony and the development of cortical networks.  Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol.14 No.2, 72-80.

Abstract

Recent data indicate that the synchronisation of oscillatory activity is relevant for the development of cortical circuits as demonstrated by the involvement of neural synchrony in synaptic plasticity and changes in the frequency and synchronisation of neural oscillations during development. Analyses of resting-state and task-related neural synchrony indicate that gamma-oscillations emerge during early childhood and precise temporal coordination through neural synchrony continues to mature until early adulthood. The late maturation of neural synchrony is compatible with changes in the myelination of cortico-cortical connections and with late development of GABAergic neurotransmission. These findings highlight the role of neural synchrony for normal brain development as well as its potential importance for understanding neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and schizophrenia.

Article Outline

Function and mechanisms of neural synchrony in cortical networks
Resting-state oscillations: development of frequency, amplitude and synchronisation
Maturation of steady-state responses
Development of task-related oscillations during motor, cognitive and perceptual processes
Neural synchrony during development: relationship to anatomy and physiology
Neural synchrony during development: implications for psychopathology
Concluding remarks
Acknowledgements
References

Diedrichsen, J., Shadmehr, R., & Ivry, R. B. (2010). The coordination of movement: optimal feedback control and
beyond. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(1), 31-39.

Abstract

Optimal control theory and its more recent extension, optimal feedback control theory, provide valuable insights into the flexible and task-dependent control of movements. Here, we focus on the problem of coordination, defined as movements that involve multiple effectors (muscles, joints or limbs). Optimal control theory makes quantitative predictions concerning the distribution of work across multiple effectors. Optimal feedback control theory further predicts variation in feedback control with changes in task demands and the correlation structure between different effectors. We highlight two crucial areas of research, hierarchical control and the problem of movement initiation, that need to be developed for an optimal feedback control theory framework to characterise movement coordination more fully and to serve as a basis for studying the neural mechanisms involved in voluntary motor control.

Article Outline

The problem of coordination
Optimal (feedback) control theory
Distribution of work across multiple effectors
Task-dependent feedback control
Structure of movement variability
Initial gating mechanism
Coordination through high-level state estimates
Current limitations and outlook
Acknowledgements
Glossary
References

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, cognition, motor movements, coordination, neural oscillations, neuroscience, neuropsychology, brain clock, IQ brain clock

Efficacy of Interactive Metronome treatment study (Cosper, 2009): An example of a "non-example" of IM efficacy research

As a member of the Interactive Metronome Scientific Advisory Board I am often asked to review published research studies that have investigated the IM method.

Recently, a investigation of the effectiveness IM (which is a mental timing-based intervnetion) with children with attention deficit disorder and developmental coordination disorders was published in the International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. The citation and abstract for the article are reproduced below.

• Cosper, S., Lee, G., Peters, S & Bishop, E. (2009).  Interactive Metronome training in children with attention deficit and developmental coordination disorders, Internal Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 32 (4), 331-336.  (click here to view)

Abstract: The objective of this study was to examine the efficacy of Interactive Metronome (Interactive Metronome, Sunrise, Florida, USA) training in a group of children with mixed attentional and motor coordination disorders to further explore which subcomponents of attentional control and motor functioning the training influences. Twelve children who had been diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, in conjunction with either developmental coordination disorder (n=10) or pervasive developmental disorder (n=2), underwent 15 1-h sessions of Interactive Metronome training over a 15-week period. Each child was assessed before and after the treatment using measures of attention, coordination, and motor control to determine the efficacy of training on these cognitive and behavioral realms. As a group, the children made significant improvements in complex visual choice reaction time and visuomotor control after the training. There were, however, no significant changes in sustained attention or inhibitory control over inappropriate motor responses after treatment. These results suggest Interactive Metronome training may address deficits in visuomotor control and speed, but appears to have little effect on sustained attention or motor inhibition.

After reading thie manuscript, I decided to make this formal blog post in an effort to educate readers on a few critical issues related to intervention research. After a thorough read of the study, and despite the fact that it reported positive findings in the area of motor coordination improvement (but not in attention), it is my professional opinion that there are enough major methodological flaws which make the study an invalid study of the effectiveness of the IM treatment program.

Below are the major concerns I have about the study. I will only focus on my major concerns and will not highlight other minor concerns I noted during my review of manuscript.

Treatment integrity/fidelity/validity:  The most serious (fatal) flaw  is the lack of treatment integrity or validity. As described in the methods section, the treatment consisted of one hour sessions (per week) of IM treatment over a period of 15 weeks. To readers unfamiliar with the IM program, the standard treatment protocol is for three hourly sessions per week.  The use of only one hourly session per week (versus the recommended three hourly sessions per week) is a clear example of poor treatment integrity as defined below.

Treatment integrity (also known as treatment fidelity) refers to the degree to which intervention is implemented as intended. Interpretations of the obtained results require some assurance that treatment was carried our as it was designed or, in other words, that treatment was implemented with high levels of integrity. Compromised integrity has serious implications for inferences drawn about the relationship between treatment and outcome. Indeed, the obtained results are related not to the intended intervention (i.e., treatment as designed) but to the implemented intervention (i.e., treatment as delivered by treatment agents). [Click here for more information]

This violation of the IM treatment protocol would be analogous to the following:

• Being prescribed three weekly sessions of physical therapy for back pain but only doing one session a week.
• Being prescribed 300 mg/day of some form of medication to treat a condition, but only taking 100 mg/day.
• Having a reading disabled student who is recommended to receive three hourly sessions of reading-focused special education services a week only receive one hourly session per week.

The bottom line is that this this study should not be considered a valid study of the efficacy of the IM treatment program as it was not implemented as per the prescribed IM treatment protocol (poor treatment integrity/fidelity).  This major methodological flaw in itself disqualifies this study as a valid study of the IM treatment program.

Confounding of IM treatment with pharmacological treatments. The sample consisted of 12 subjects with various diagnoses, but whom all shared a diagnosis of ADHD.  As described by the authors, half of the subjects were taking some form of medication during the study. More importantly, "no medication changes occurred over the course of the study". This introduces a potential intervention confound. It is very possible that the medications received by half of the sample were already impacting the ability of these children to attend and concentrate at their maximal levels. As a result, no non-pharmacological intervention would have a chance to prove its effectiveness as these six subjects were already being "treated " via medication (and might already be near or at their optimal level of functioning). When it can be ethically designed, the efficacy of nondrug (or new drug) effectiveness is typically investigated by having subjects on a  current medication regime discontinue their medication for a rescribed period of time to establish a nondrug baseline performance level. Then the new treatment (or new drug) is introduced and performance measured to evaluate effectiveness. This was not done in the current study for half of the subjects.   It can be easily argued that  at least half of the subjects were already receiving treatment or intervention (medication) which confoundes the ability to detect effectiveness for any new treatment (e.g.,  IM). 

Statistical and design analysis: It is well known in the research methodology literature that the simple analysis of change scores (from a pre- post-test design) is a less than optimal research design. The most critical issue is the fact that the reliability of the change or difference score is a function of the reliability of the pre-and post test scores and the correlation between the two. The reliability of change scores is always much lower than the reliability of individual measures. In addition, possible differences in the subjects as they entered the study should be controlled for in the analysis via some form of statistical control (e.g., analysis of covariance, repeated measures designs, etc.). Simple pre-/post-test change score research designs suffer from serious methodological flaws.  This has been recognized for decades.  The results are of questionable value. Click here for additional background information.  Furthermore, the study does not include a control group or the random assignment of subjects to treatment and control groups.

Incomplete literature review:  In the introduction the authors state that "there are only two peer-reviewed studies comparing pretreatment and posttreatment effects that include a control group, and one of these found that the Interactive Metronome improved golf swings in healthy normal individuals."  The authors failed to mention one of the largest and best designed IM efficacy studies (random assigment of subjects to treatment and control groups;  analysis that controlled for initial pret-test scores) by Taub et al.  (2007).  Furthermore, the above quote conveys the implicit assumption that a study of the effectiveness of IM on golf swings is not relevant to the current research. This reflects a narrow understanding of the potential causal mechanisms of the IM program. As discussed in the Taub et al article, and in a recent review of the efficacy of various brain rhythm treatments, a review of theoretical and empirical research (from a diverse range of disciplines) suggests the hypothesis that the effectiveness of IM is due to its impact on a "domain-general" cognitive mechanism. If a treatment programs efficacy is believed to be based on the modification of a domain general cognitive/brain-based mechanism, one would expect it to have generalized treatment effects across a wide variety of human performance domains. This is discussed in greater detail in the Taub et al paper. [Conflict of interest note - I am a coauthor on this paper].

In conclusion, it is my professional opinion that the Cosper et al (2009) IM efficacy study suffers from major methodological flaws which make the study an invalid study of the effectiveness of the IM treatment program.

Technorati Tags: psychology, neurotechnology, neuroscience, Interactive Metronome, mental time keeping, IQ brain clock, interval timing, brain clock, brain rhythm, rhythm perception, rhythm production

NIMH funded neurofeedback ADHD study -- does it impact the brain clock?

Interesting story in the Washington Post regarding a well-designed study being funded by NIMH re: the efficacy of neurofeedback.  I'm anxious to see the results, as I've hypothesized that the apparent efficacy of rhythm-based metronome therapies (e.g., Interactive Metronome) for ADHD operate in a similar manner as they provides constant and immediate performance feedback based on rhythm motor synchronization.  I've speculated that these forms of treatment may be improving the synchronization of information across different parts of the brain via the "fine tuning" of the brain clock (the temporal resolution hypothesis).  In particular, I've hypothesized about these methods improving the neurocognitive constructs of executive selective attention and working memory.  

I've outlined the foundation for my hypothesis in some on-line PPT slide shows that can be accessed on the blog sidebar.

A couple past posts of relevance can be found here, here, and here.

Conflict of interest disclosure:  I'm on the Scientific Advisory Board for Interactive Metronome.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, neuropsychology, neurotechnology, neuroscience, Interactive Metronome, rhythm perception, brain rhythm, rhythm, mental timing, IQ brain clock, selective attention, executive functions, working memory

Research byte: Ga (auditory sound processing) and cognitive development: Auditory scaffolding hypothosis

I ran across this very interest article in one of my favorite journals for short and concise up-to-date summaries of contemporary cognitive research.  Given the apparent role of temporal and serial processing in mental timing behavior (IQ Brain Clock), it reinforces the notion that auditory processing (Ga) is a primary and important cognitive mechanism for intellectual and cognitive growth.....according to these authors, vis-a-vis providing a bootstrap or scaffolding mechanism for the development of critical cognitive functions.

Conway,C.  Pisoni, D., & Kronenberger, W. (2009). The Importance of Sound for Cognitive Sequencing Abilities: The Auditory Scaffolding Hypothesis.  Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(5), 275-179 (click here to view) 

ABSTRACT

Sound is inherently a temporal and sequential signal. Experience with sound therefore may help bootstrap— that is, provide a kind of ‘‘scaffolding’’ for—the development of general cognitive abilities related to representing temporal or sequential patterns. Accordingly, the absence of sound early in development may result in disturbances to these sequencing skills. In support of this hypothesis, we present two types of findings. First, normalhearing adults do best on sequencing tasks when the sense of hearing, rather than sight, can be used. Second, recent findings suggest that deaf children have disturbances on exactly these same kinds of tasks that involve learning and manipulation of serial-order information. We suggest that sound provides an ‘‘auditory scaffolding’’ for time and serial-order behavior, possibly mediated through neural connections between the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain. Under conditions of auditory deprivation, auditory scaffolding is absent, resulting in neural reorganization and a disturbance to cognitive sequencing abilities.

Technorati Tags: psychology, language, Ga, auditory processing, temporal processing, serial processing, brain clock, mental timing, IQ brain clock, school psychology, educational psychology, cognitive abilities, intelligence, IQ, auditory scaffolding hypothesis, neuroscience, neuropsychology

ResearchBytes 10-23-09: Rhythm production and reading/dyslexia

Articles that caught my eye during my weekly search of a wide range of professional literature.

Dellatolas, G., Watier, L., LeNormand, M. T., Lubart, T., & ChevrieMuller, C. (2009). Rhythm Reproduction in Kindergarten, Reading Performance at Second Grade, and Developmental Dyslexia Theories. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 24(6), 555-563.

Temporal processing deficit could be associated with a specific difficulty in learning to read. In 1951, Stambak provided preliminary evidence that children with dyslexia performed less well than good readers in reproduction of 21 rhythmic patterns. Stambak's task was administered to 1,028 French children aged 5–6 years. The score distribution (from 0 to 21) was quasi-normal, with some children failing completely and other performing perfectly. In second grade, reading was assessed in 695 of these children. Kindergarten variables explained 26% of the variance of the reading score at second grade. The Stambak score was strongly and linearly related to reading performance in second grade, after partialling out performance on other tasks (oral repetition, attention, and visuo-spatial tasks) and socio-cultural level. Findings are discussed in relation to perceptual, cerebellar, intermodal, and attention-related theories of developmental dyslexia. It is concluded that simple rhythm reproduction tasks in kindergarten are predictive of later reading performance.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, special education, neuropsychology, neuroscience, rhythm, rhythm production, dyslexia, mental timing, IQ Brain Clock

Time Doc Bytes: Two new exciting brain-based brain clock research studies

Two very interesting research studies reported this past week.

The first used a rare procedure (implanting electrodes in Broca's area of the brain) provides useful information on brain mechanisms involved in the speed, timing and sequence of language behaviors.

The second, based on research with primates, is very intriguing as it suggest the use of a "brain stamp" mechanism for keeping time of events.   Interestingly, and consistent with considerable research posted at this blog before, the focus was on certain brain regions/mechanisms (prefrontal cortex; straitum; dopamine), and implications were mentioned for Parkinson's disease treatment.

Technorati Tags: pscyhology, educational psychology, school psychology, developmental psychology, cognition, intelligence, brain clock, mental timing, temporal processing, IQ Brain Clock, prefrontal cortex, language, Brocas area

Arts training improves cognition via attention: More support for IQ brain clock fine tunning hypothesis

I just read an interesting post at Cerebrum regarding the impact of training in the arts and improved cognition, hypothesized to occur due to improvement in attention.

I find the research very consistent with the proposed link between the mental timing (IQ Brain Clock) and improved cognitive performance, which has been hypothesized to impact the same basic cognitive functions (esp., controlled executive attention and executive functions).  I've blogged and PPT'd extensively at this blog, esp. with re: to neurotechnologies that focus on synchronized metronome tapping, a technology that deals with rhythm perception and production.

In my opinion, the research discussed at the Cerebrum adds to the growing literature suggesting a link between "fine tuning the temporal resolution of the brain clock" and improved cognitive efficiency.  Amy Vega and I recently published a research review report supporting the link between brain rhythm-based treatments and improvement in a diverse array of human performance domains. 

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, school psychology, neuropsychology, neurotechnology, music, music therapy, metronome, Ineractive Metronome, synchronized metronome tapping, executive function, attention, controlled executive attention, mental timing, brain rhythm, rhythm perception, rhythm perception, IQ Brain Clock

Vibrating chair for Parkinson's: Possible rhythm effect?

Interesting post at Mind Hacks regarding historical treatment for Parkinson's disease via a "vibratory chair." Links to a current paper that discusses the old treatment is available, with some contemporary research cited re: the modest benefits of vibration therapy with PD. Is it possible that there could be an underlying "rhythmic" treatment effect--an effect similar to that we discussed in our recent brain rhythm paper? Hmmmmmmmmmmmm. Curious minds want to know.

Thanks Mind Hacks for interesting post.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, rehabilitation, Parkinsons disease, vibrating chair, brain rhythm, rhythm perception

Temporal g or temporal resolution power hypothesis: IQ Brain Clock support

[Double click on image to enlarge]

Temporal g...or...the temporal resolution power hypothesis (TRP). Lets hear it for the IQ Brain Clock!

I've previously blogged, with considerable excitement, about recent research that has suggested that the temporal resolution of one's internal "brain clock" may be more closely associated with intelligence scholars search for the neural underpinnings of general intelligence (g). Traditionally, and overwhelmingly, intelligence scholars have studied and focused on mental reaction time, largely based on the seminal work of Arthur Jensen. Then, along came recent research led primarily by mental timing scholar Rammsayer and colleagues...research that suggested that temporal g (vs. reaction time g) may be more important in attempts to identify the underlying mechanism of neural efficiency.. the focus of the search for the "holy grail" of general intelligence for decades.

The following just published journal article continlues to add to the evidence that temporal processing, temporal g, and/or temporal resolution, may be critically important in understanding human intellectual performance. Below is the article reference, abstract, and my paraphrased comments from a reading of the article.

• Troche, S & Rammsayer, T. (2009). Temporal and non-temporal sensory discrimination and their predictions of capacity-and speed-related aspects of psychometric intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences,47, 52–57

Abstract

The temporal resolution power hypothesis explains individual differences in psychometric intelligence in terms of temporal acuity of the brain. This approach was supported by high correlations between temporal discrimination and psychometric intelligence. Psychometric intelligence, however, was frequently found to be related to non-temporal discrimination (e.g., frequency, intensity, brightness discrimination). The present study investigated 100 female and 100 male participants with the aim to elucidate the functional relations between psychometric intelligence and temporal and non-temporal discrimination ability. Supporting the assumption of dissociable mechanisms, non-temporal discrimination predicted directly capacity – but not speed-related aspects of psychometric intelligence whereas temporal discrimination predicted both aspects. A substantial correlation between temporal and non-temporal discrimination suggested that general discrimination ability might account for the relations of psychometric intelligence to temporal and non-temporal discrimination abilities. Findings point to an internal structure of general discrimination ability with some dimensions of discrimination more predictive to certain aspects of psychometric intelligence than others.

Introduction/background summary

The neural efficiency hypothises, based on Jensen's model of neuronal oscillations, has stood front and center as the defacto explanation of individual differences in processing speed and psychometric intelligence. This model suggestes that individuals differ in the rate of rate of oscillation between refractory and excitatory states of neurons. The efficieny of oscillation rate, in turn, determines the speed/efficiency of transmission of neurally encoded information. The bottom line is that individuals with higher neural oscilate rates are believed to process information more efficiently, which leads to better intellectual performance.

In contrast, according to the articles authors, the more recent "temporal resolution power (TRP) hypothesis also refers to a hypothetical oscillatory process in the brain to account for the relationship between efficiency and speed of information processing as well as psychometric intelligence (Rammsayer & Brandler, 2002, 2007). According to this view, higher neural temporal resolution leads to faster information processing and to better coordination of mental operations resulting in better performance on intelligence tests. Rammsayer and Brandler (2002) proposed that psychophysical timing tasks, assessing temporal sensitivity and timing accuracy, are the most direct behavioral measures of TRP. The TRP hypothesis has been supported by subsequent studies which found substantial correlations between psychometric intelligence and timing performance (Helmbold, Troche, & Rammsayer, 2006, 2007; Rammsayer & Brandler, 2007)." Most of these studies have been described previously at the IQ Brain Clock blog under the label temporal g.

An important issue for the TRP hypothesis to address is the fact that the most frequently used mental timing tasks also imply some form of simple sensory discrimination (together with the timing component). In order for the TRP hypothesis to have merit, the model must address (explain) the established relation between sensory discrmination and psychometric (tested) intelligence not only for the temporal domain but also for other non-temporal sensory dimensions. As summarized by the author, "associations with psychometric intelligence were shown for color (r = .08 to r = .32; Acton & Schroeder, 2001), pitch (r = .42 to r = .54; Raz, Willerman, & Yama, 1987), or texture and shape in the tactile modality (r = .08 to r = .29; Stankov, Seizova-Cajic´, & Roberts, 2001)."

Purpose of study

The purpose of the current study was to disentagle the relations between temporal processing and sensory discrmination via the evaluation and testing of two different structural models. As described by the authors, "the first model expanded the investigation of Helmbold et al. (2006) to the level of latent variables by factorizing various non-temporal and temporal discrimination tasks. It is assumed that temporal and non-temporal discrimination abilities predict psychometric intelligence as two dissociable factors which, however, can be related to each other. The TRP hypothesis postulates that TRP affects both capacity- and speed-related aspects of psychometric intelligence (Helmbold & Rammsayer, 2006)."

Alternatively "Model 2 proceeds from Spearman’s (1904) assumption that a general discrimination ability predicts psychometric intelligence. In accordance with this view, temporal discrimination constitutes a factor indissociable from non-temporal discrimination. In other words, temporal and non-temporal discrimination tasks build a common factor referred to as GDA."

Method summary

The subjects were 100 male and 100 female volunteers (18 to 30 years of age; mean ± SD = 22.2 ± 3.3 years). The sample comprised 93 university students, 89 vocational school students and apprentices, while the remaining participants were working individuals of different professions. All participants reported normal hearing and normal or corrected-to-normal sight. The authors employed structural equation modeling (SEM) methods to evaluate and compare the two models.

Capacity and speed components of psychometric IQ (g) were measured with 12 subtests of the Berlin model of intelligence structure (BIS) test (Jäger, Süß, & Beauducel, 1997). Four temporal (temporal generalization, duration, temporal-order judgment, rhythm perception) and three non-temporal sensory discrimination tasks (pitch discrimination, intensity discrimination, rightness discrimination) were used to operationally define temporal processing and sensory discrimination, respectively.


Conclusions/discussion summary (emphasis added by blogmaster)

Evaluation and comparison of the two models suggested the following conclusions (as per the authors)

• The relation between non-temporal discrimination and speed was completely mediated by temporal discrimination. The association between temporal discrimination and capacity was twofold. There was a weak but reliable direct association as well as a stronger indirect relation mediated by non-temporal discrimination.

• Although Model 1 revealed a high correlation between temporal and non-temporal discrimination, the different relations of temporal and non-temporal discrimination to speed and capacity suggest that the two factors are dissociable. Our finding of a strong correlational link between temporal discrimination ability and psychometric intelligence is in line with the outcome of previous studies investigating the TRP hypothesis...according to this account, higher TRP entails increased speed and efficiency of information processing resulting in higher scores on both speed- and capacity-related intelligence tests. Thus, our finding that Model 1 fitted the data well is in line with the TRP hypothesis.

• The present results corroborate Helmbold and Rammsayer’s (2006) finding of a stronger relationship between temporal discrimination ability and capacity compared to speed. On the contrary, shared variance with non-temporal discrimination accounted for the association between capacity and temporal discrimination whereas the direct link between temporal discrimination and capacity was rather weak. Thus, the strong relation between TRP and psychometric intelligence is probably due to the fact that TRP, when measured as a factor derived from temporal discrimination tasks, taps both temporal and unspecific discrimination abilities. From this perspective, time-related aspects of TRP may account for the association to speed whereas rather unspecific discrimination-related aspects mainly account for the association with capacity.

• The more parsimonious Model 2 should be preferred over Model 1. Model 2 suggests that temporal and non-temporal discrimination tasks constitute a common factor of unspecific, general discrimination performance referred to as GDA. The close association between this factor and psychometric intelligence is supported by the outcome of previous studies.

• The finding, that both temporal and non-temporal discrimination share a common source, supports the notion that general discrimination ability is somehow associated with higher-order mental ability.

• The finding of a close association between GDA and psychometric intelligence suggests, that already at a very early sensory stage of information processing, higher neural efficiency can be observed as a correlate of psychometric intelligence

• The high correlations between GDA and speed- as well as capacity-related aspects of psychometric intelligence, as revealed by Model 2, emphasize the importance of sensory performance as a correlate of higher-order mental ability. Nevertheless, differential relations between temporal and non-temporal discrimination and aspects of psychometric intelligence, as suggested by Model 1, may help to elucidate the internal structure of GDA. This is, certain sensory processes appear to be more predictive for certain aspects of psychometric intelligence than others. Such a conclusion is in line with the results of Stankov et al. (2001) who reported differential relations between cognitive abilities and aspects of tactile and kinesthetic perceptual processing. In the face of the available data, mapping of differential relationships between distinct sensory performances and components of psychometric intelligence represent a promising strategy to further explore the significance of sensory processes for human mental abilities.

Bottom line: This study continues to support the importance of temporal g, temporal processing, or the TRP hypothesis in explaining neural efficiency, which in turn is believed to play a major role in facilitating better (higher) intellectual performance. Understanding the interal IQ Brain Clock, and interventions/treatements that may help "fine tune" the brain clock (increase its timing resolution), appears an important avenue to pursue both for theoretical and applied (cognitive enhancement interventions) research. To pat myself on the back, I've previously summarized the potential link between increased resolution of the brain clock and higher cognitive functioning in prior professinal presentations (click here to visit a SlideShare PPT show)

Technorati Tags: psychology, education, educational psychology, school psychology, neuroscience, neuropsychology, neurotechnology, Arthur Jensen, g, general intelligence, psychometric intelligence, temporal processing, temporal g, temporal resolution hypothesis, brain clock, IQ Brain Clock, sensory discrimination

Individual differences in rhtyhm perception and beat production

I received an advanced copy of a interesting manuscript accepted for publication by J. Grahn and D. McAuley, two researchers studying mental timing, and rhythm perception and beat production in particular.  The title of their "in press" article is Neural bases of individual differences in beat perception.  Since the manuscript has not gone through the final editing stage, I currently cannot make it available for viewing.  At this time I'm just providing a "sneak peak" via a copy of the abstract on the accepted version of the manuscript.  Dr. Grahn is listed under the Mental Timing Scholars blogroll at this blog.  Copies of other related publications by these researchers can be found at their professional web pages.  I'll be keeping an eye open for the formal publication

Abstract

When people listen to music, they often move their body in time with the beat. However, people differ widely in their tendency to ‘feel a beat’. Why? Here we combined functional magnetic resonance imaging with a timing task that is diagnostic of individual differences in beat perception and compared the brain activity of individuals who readily perceive an implied beat with those who do not. Activation in auditory and motor areas was correlated with individual differences in beat perception, even when participants performed a timing task in which no behavioral differences occurred. The results support two conclusions. First, beat perception is mediated by the activation of cortical circuits involved in rhythm production. Second, some individuals more readily engage these
cortical beat-based circuits when making timing judgments than do others.

Technorati Tags: psychology, educational psychology, biological psychology, school psychology, music, neuropsychology, neuroscience, beat production, rhythm, rhythm perception, IQ Brain Clock

Time Doc Reading Inbox: 5-7-09 (Brain rhythm research)

As I've lamented before..."so much to read...so little time." I simply can't keep up with the deluge of research publications related to the IQ Brain Clock. The diversity of fields involved in the study of human timing, time perception, mental timing, etc. is simply amazing. I download PDF articles (constantly) with good intentions...to read them and blog about those I think are important for readers of this blog. Good intentions....but lack of time (and I'm having the same problem with my other blog - IQs Corner)

Today I again cleaned out in Time Doc Reading Inbox on my hard drive. I made some decisions (often difficult) on articles that I will simply file in e-folders. I culled those I had already skimmed and blogged about. This left me with a handful of articles, book chapters, etc. that I want to skim and comment on. But I know I will find another dozen within the week.

The new Time Doc Reading Inbox (5-7-09) features articles from the special issue of Cortex that deals with brain rhythm research. Prior "inbox" postings can be find by scrolling down the right-side of this blog.

I hope some of these articles pique the interest of some readers...so much so that they will ask me for a copy of an article (or two, or.....)...and I will provide a copy in exchange for brief guest blog posts regarding the manuscripts.

Any takers? Please contact me at iap@earthlink.net if you are interested.



Technorati Tags: psychology, biological psychology, educaitonal psychology, school psychology, cognition, intelligence, ISIR, mental time-keeping, IQ brain clock, time perception, Time Doc Inbox, brain clock, mental timing, temporal awareness, temporal processing